SJofe^.of 


UC-NRLF 


TffbKS  on  TE/ICBIKG 


#FpnciS-w-PMKER 


-  HeporM  -Ly  •  LEM^  E  •  PJITI^IDGE  - 


<$^u&vfiV2sai 


^^^^^>«/^ 


^cJ 


/>^o^^  , 


^^^.^d?^:>  ^/f"/^.^-^^^ 


NOTES 


Talks  on  Teaching, 


FRANCIS  W.   PARKER, 


Martha's  Vineyard    Summer    Institute, 
July   17  to  August   19,    1882. 

REPORTED   BY 

LELIA  E.  PATRIDGE. 


SEVENTH   EDITION. 


NEW  YORK : 

E;   L.    KELLOGG   &   CO. 

1885. 


COPYRIGHT,  1883,  BY 

LELIA    E,  PATRIDGE. 


M.  H.  Green, 
324  to  330  Pearl  Street, 

NEW  YORK. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION:     Sketch    of    Col.    Parker's 
Work 

TALK  I. — Preliminary 19 

Attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  the  work — Foundation  for  true 
judgment — Price  of  success — The  Quincy  System  ; — what  it  is. — 
False  and  true  motives  of  education — Definition  of  education — 
End  and  aim  of  the  work — What  the  teacher  must  know — Study 
of  principles  indispensable. 

Technical  Skill 23 

Vocal  culture — Drill  in  Phonics — Training  in  reading  and  talk- 
ing— Cultivation  in  Singing — Practice  in  Penmanship — Exercise 
in  Drawing — Learning  to  Mould,  in  sand  and  clay — Gymnastic 
drill. 

TALK  n.— Reading 26 

Importance  of  definitions  —  What  is  reading?— How  we  get 
thought  —  Difference  between  hearing  language,  and  reading  — 
Definition  of  reading — Preparation  made  by  child  for  reading — 
What  he  has  to  do  to  learn  to  read— The  child's  oral  expression- 
Function  of  ofal  reading— The  use  of  silent  reading— Importance 
of  correct  habits  of  reading. 

TALK  IIL— Reading.— The  Word 30 

How  child  acquires  the  spoken  word — The  law  of  association — 
The  mental  stimulus— Association  of  words  with  ideas— Objects 

54,]  I  71 


:ij/;-  :  •.,:  ;    •  -;  ,     :  ;;.       CONTENTS, 

PAGE 

the  best  possible  stimulus — The  object  method — The  word  as  a 
whole.     (Word  method) — Devices  to  be  used — Writing  the  word. 

TALK  I  v.— Reading.— Sentence 35 

Rdsumd  of  previous  talk — Another  means  of  association  (the 
*  sentence)  —  The  simplest  step  first  (the  word)  —  The  sentence 
method — Child's  natural  expression  to  be  retained. — Getting  the 
thought  before  giving  it — The  method  of  imitation. 

TALK  v.— Reading. — Script 40 

The  written  word— Script  versus  print— The  change  from  script 
to  print — Advantages  of  the  script  method — Reasons  for  use  of 
the  black-board — Why  child  changes  readily  from  script  to  print. 

TALK  VL— Reading. — Phonics 45 

The  spoken  word ;  what  it  recalls — Explanation  of  slow  pro- 
nunciation— Process  of  association  between  spoken  and  written 
word — Phonetic  classification — Reconciliation  of  phonic  and  word 
methods— The  law  of  like  to  like,  and  its  uses— Details  of  the 
phonic  method. 

TALK    VIL— Reading.— Application    of   Princi- 
ples         53 

No  new  methods  of  teaching  reading — Reconciliation  of  all, 
forms  the  true  method — Importance  of  a  careful  selection  of  words 
— What  words  should  be  taught  first — Directions  regarding  the 
first  vocabulary — How  to  teach  the  first  words — How  to  teach  the 
first  sentences — Devices  for  teaching  the  next  step. 

TALK  VIIL — Reading. — Application  of   Princi- 
ples.    (Continued) 60 

General  directions  for  first  lessons — Devices  for  teaching  the  first 
writing — Purpose  of  phonic  analysis — First  steps  in  slow  pronun- 
ciation —  Details  of  further  training  in  phonics  —  The  Sound 
Chart. 


CONTENTS,  V 

PAGE 

TALK    IX. — Reading. — Application    of    Princi- 
ples.    (Concluded) 66 

Directions  for  changing  from  script  to  print — First  three  years* 
.course— Bad  Habits ;  how  caused — Devices  for  correcting  them — 
General  suggestions — Reading  script  work — The  standard  of  ex- 
cellence. 

TALK  X.— Spelling 71 

What  is  spelling  ? — How  is  it  learned  ? — Proper  function  of  oral 
spelling — Purpose  of  spelling — First  year's  work — General  direc- 
tions. 

TALK  XL— Writing 75 

Reasons  for  teaching  writing,  early  in  the  course — The  forms  of 
letters  established — Correct  training  versus  individuality — Every- 
thing should  be  carefully  copied — Suggestions  as  to  training  in 
technic  —  Chart  of  letters,  arranged  in  the  order  of  teaching  — 
Movement  in  writing  ;  when  it  should  begin — What  is  to  be  ac- 
complished— Directions  for  training. 

TALK  XIL— Talking  with  the  Pencil 80 

How  to  treat  child  when  it  enters  school — Exercises  in  talking 
with  the  tongue — Correction  of  bad  habits,  and  inaccuracies — New 
idioms,  and  different  parts  of  speech,  taught  objectively — What 
should  precede  talking  with  the  pencil. 

TALK  XIII. — Talking  with  the    Pencil.     (Con- 
tinued)      84 

Thought  before  expression — First  exercises  in  original  written 
work — Suggestions  as  to  training  in  capitalization,  punctuation, 
etc. — The  use  of  pictures — Object  teaching  ;  wrong,  and  right — 
Natural  objects,  as  aids  to  language  lessons — Descriptions,  and 
stories — Important  rules. 


VI  CONTENTS, 


TALK  XIV.— Composition 89 

Results  of  previous  work — Every  lesson  a  language  lesson — Ele- 
mentary and  advanced  Geography  as  an  aid — History  to  furnish 
exercises  in  composition — Arithmetic  will  train  in  exact  logic — 
How  the  study  of  Natural  Science  can  be  used — No  necessity  for 
the  spelling-book — When  should  Grammar  be  taught  ? — Uso  of 
incorrect  forms ;  false  S3mtax,  etc. — Parsing  ;  word  lessons  ;  and 
diagrams. 


TALK  XV.  —Number 95 

What  is  number  ? — Limitation  of  sense-grasp,  and  imagination 
— Objections  to  the  object  method— What  can  be  done  with  num- 
bers ?— The  fundamental  four  operations — What  is  the  use  of  num- 
ber ? — How  must  number  be  taught  ? — First  find  out  what  the  child 
knows — Facts  the  teacher  should  know — Calculation  should  be  au- 
tomatic. 


TALK  XVL— Number.     (Continued) 103 

Too  much  attempted  the  first  year — Let  child  discover  facts  for 
himself — Teach  the  four  operation  sat  the  same  time — Reasons  for 
this  —  Analysis  and  synthesis — A  misunderstood  point  in  Arith- 
metics— The  learning  of  the  language  of  number — Details  of  the 
step-by-step  plan — When  should  the  use  of  objects  cease  ? — Advice 
to  teachers. 


TALK  XVIL— Arithmetic no 

When  and  how  to  begin  teaching  figures  and  signs — Details  of 
succeeding  steps  to  20— -Parker's  Arithmetical  Chart ;  20  to  100 — 
When  can  new  numbers  be  taught  without  objects  ? — Nothing  new 
in  higher  Arithmetic  —  Needless  complexity  of  this  study — Teach 
every  new  subject,  objectively — How  to  bring  about  humility — 
Teachers  need  to  study  numbers  of  things — How  much  analysis  ? — 
Pupils  should  be  led  to  discover  thoughts  for  themselves — No  ex- 
planations. We  learn  to  do  by  doing — Education  is  the  generation 
of  power. 


CONTENTS.  vii 

PAGB 

TALK  XVIII.— Geography - , 120 

Geography  defined— Two  parts  of  study  :  Structural  Geography 
and  History — First  work  ;  forming  mental  pictures  of  structure— 
The  character  of  continental  forms  locates  and  fixes  them  in  the 
mind — Illustration  ;  the  novelist  and  historian — All  that  is  chang- 
ing should  be  held  in  immovable  forms — Vertical  forms  determine 
the  character  of  continents  —  Also  character  of  inhabitants,  and 
history — Study  of  structure  forms  the  basis  of  all  Physical  Sciences 
— Humboldt,  Ritter,  and  Guyot  and  their  work. 

TALK  XIX.— Geography.     (Continued) 126 

How  can  unseen  forms  be  built  in  the  mind  ? — Imagination  and 
its  laws — Importance  of  cultivating  this  faculty— Power  of  imagi- 
nation in  children— Directions  for  teaching  the  first  steps  in  Geog- 
raphy— ^Work  of  the  first  five  years  in  this  study — Problems  to  ex- 
cite curiosity,  and  lead  to  investigation — Reasons  for  teaching  the 
continent  before  the  county  or  state — The  wholes  of  sense-grasp 
and  of  imagination — Mathematical  Geography ;  when  it  should 
be  taught. 

TALK  XX.— Geography.     (Continued) 133 

What  is  meant  by  building  the  continents — What  a  continent  is 
—  The  Moulding  in  Geography.  Its  use  and  abuse  —  How  to 
teach  a  continent  by  moulding — Map-Drawing.  Its  place  and  de- 
sign— The  order  of  teaching  the  continents — What  follows  this 
study  of  continental  forms. 

TALK  XXL— Geography.     (Concluded) 138 

The  placing  of  continents  in  their  relative  positions — Lessons 
upon  soil ;  vegetation  ;  and  animals — Mines  and  quarries  located — 
The  study  of  man  ;  races  ;  customs;  habits,  etc. — Governments  and 
political  divisions  —  Cities  ;  industries  ;  manufactures,  and  com- 
merce— Latitude,  longitude,  and  climate — What  countries  should 
be  studied — Collateral  reading — Illustrative  collections  of  objects, 
and  pictures — The  great  difficulty  in  the  way. 


VI 11  CONTENTS, 

PAGK 

TALK  XXII.—HisTORY 143 

What  should  be  gained  by  study  of  History — Mental  powers 
trained  by  this  study— Use  of  fairy,  and  mythological  stories— De- 
tails of  indirect  work  from  4th  to  7th  year — How  to  take  up  the 
real  study  of  History — Rules  for  selection  of  topics — Teach  vital 
and  interesting  facts ;  not  empty  generalization— Fix  events  and 
scenes  upon  clear  mental  pictures  of  structure— Detailed  directions 
for  the  teaching  of  a  topic— Dates.  What  they  should  be— Cau- 
tion, regarding  the  teaching  of  religious  and  political  events. 

TALK  XXIII. — Examinations 150 

Examinations  a  great  obstacle  to  good  teaching — What  is  the 
aim  of  real  teaching  ? — ^What  the  object  of  examinations  should 
be — The  common  standard  false,  and  absurd— Illustration  of  the 
right  mode  of  examining — Too  much  demanded  of  children — Ex- 
aminations not  the  proper  test  for  promotion — Freedom  necessary 
for  the  teacher  —  The  doctrine  of  responsibility — Give  the  good 
teachers  a  chance— Appeal  for  earnest,  honest  study  and  investiga- 
tion. 

TALK  XXIV.— School  Government 156 

The  highest  motive  of  school  government — What  is  real  atten- 
tion ? — Two  ways  in  which  it  may  be  gained — First  try  to  make 
the  subject  attractive— Definition  of  natural  teaching— Kindergar- 
ten principles  all  through  education — Contrast  between  the  two 
ideals  in  education — Teach  everything  with  the  stimulus  of  what 
the  child  loves — Illustration.  Moulding,  and  Drawing — Demoral- 
izing results  of  most  primary  teaching — Necessity  of  reward  or 
punishment  under  the  quantity  ideal — Answer  to  the  argument  for 
stem  discipline,  etc. — The  purpose  of  education — No  time  to  spend 
upon  made-up  obstacles — ^Work  best  adapted  to  the  child  is  best 
loved  by  him — The  appeal  to  fear — Children  study,  and  read  the 
teacher — The  question  of  Corporal  punishment. 

TALK  XXV.— Moral  Training 166 

End  and  aim  of  all  education — What  is  character  ? — Analysis 
into  habits — Formation  of  habits — Everything  done  in  school  has 


CONTENTS,  IX 

a  moral  or  immoral  tendency  —  Importance  of  training  in  self- 
control — Three  causes  that  control  the  will — Child  first  controlled 
by  mother  or  teacher — When  child  should  exercise  its  own  volition 
—  Leading  child  to  know,  and  do,  the  right — Habitual  wrong- 
doing corrected  by  habitual  right-doing — Necessity  of  knowing  the 
diild  and  its  nature — Natural  methods  defined — Wrong  methods 
immoral  in  their  tendency  —  Natural  methods  enhance  teacher's 
power  for  right — Attractiveness  in  subject  arouses  desire  to  attend — 
Doing  through  love  of  doing  forms  habit — Fear  and  force  disgust 
and  demoralize — Answer  to  argument  in  favor  of  old  methods — 
Bad  effects  of  the  system  of  rewards,  etc. — Truth  should  govern  the 
will — Train  child  to  seek,  find,  and  use,  the  truth — Reason  weak- 
ened through  teaching  generalizations — How  the  habit  of  seeking 
truth  influences  the  after  life — Training  of  skill  without  regard  to 
thoughts — Effect  when  percision  is  the  end  and  aim — Conceit,  an- 
other outgrowth  of  the  quantity  ideal — The  greatest  barrier  to  true 
knowledge — Necessity  for  constant  study  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
— Careful  selection  of  objects  of  thought  presented—  Basis  of 
thought  and  imagination  —  Study  of  nature  as  a  foundation  for 
spiritual  growth — Fill  the  mind  with  good,  leaving  no  room  for 
evil — Teacher,  a  constant  object  lesson  to  child  —  Tendency  of 
children  to  read  vicious  literature— Its  cause  and  cure — Plea  for 
supplementary  reading  —  Train  children  to  love  work  —  Natural 
love  of  child  for  expression  in  the  concrete — Distinction  between 
real  work  and  drudgery — Importance  of  training  in  manual  labor 
—Last  words. 


BOOKS  ON  THE ''  NEW  EDUCATION/^ 


THE  "QUINCY  METHODS"  ILLUS- 
TRATED. Patridge.  686  pp.,  cloth, 
$1.50. 

TALKS  ON  TEACHING.  Parker.  192 
pp.,  cloth,   $1.00. 

LECTURES  ON  THE  SCIENCE 
AND  ART  OF  EDUCATION.   Payne. 

264  pp.,   cloth,   $0.75. 

EDUCATION  BY  DOING.  Johnson. 
120  pp.,   cloth,   $0.60. 

SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT.  Kellogg. 
128  pp.,   cloth,   I0.75. 

PHILOSOPHY      OF      EDUCATION. 

Tate.     In  preparation, 

E.  L.   KELLOGG  &  CO., 

Educational  Publishers, 

25  Clinton  Place,  N.  Y. 


INTRODUCTION. 


There  is,  perhaps,  no  name  more  widely  known 
among  the  teachers  of  this  country,  than  that  of  Col. 
Francis  W.  Parker.  The  results  of  his  supervision  of 
the  Quincy  schools  have  made  him  the  most  talked 
of,  if  not  the  most  popular  educator  of  our  time. 
Whatever  may  be  thought  of  him  or  his  work — and 
it  would  be  idle  to  deny  that  opinions  differ  regard- 
ing both  —  he  is  acknowledged,  even  by  his  oppo- 
nents, to  be  one  of  those  who  are  destined  to  mould 
public  opinion.  Concerning  such  the  world  is  always 
curious.  We  desire  to  know  their  history,  their 
environment,  that  we  may  judge  their  power. 

Remembering  this,  I  have  thought  that  something 
of  the  man,  as  well  as  his  methods,  might  prove 
interesting  to  the  readers  of  the  '*  Notes.*'  I  have, 
therefore,  persuaded  Col.  Parker  to  give  me  the  salient 
points  of  his  life,  more  especially  those  that  bear 
upon  his  career  as  a  teacher,  and  these  I  have  thrown 
into  shape  and  order  in  the  sketch  which  follows. 

Francis  Wayland  Parker,  born  October  9th,  1837,  ^^ 
the  town  of  Bedford  (now  Manchester),  N.  H.,  came 


Xll  INTRODUCTION. 

of  a  race  of  scholars  and  teachers.  His  great-grand- 
father on  his  mother's  side  was  Librarian  of  Harvard 
College,  and  a  class-mate  of  Hancock.  His  mother 
taught  for  several  years  before  her  marriage,  showing 
marked  originality  in  her  methods  ;  and  all  her  children 
were  born  teachers. 

From  earliest  childhood  he  thought  and  talked  of  be- 
ing a  teacher.  It  was  always  his  dream,  and  his  one  am- 
bition. His  father  dying  when  Francis  was  but  six 
years  old,  at  eight  the  boy  was  bound  out,  according 
to  New  England  phrase,  that  is,  apprenticed  to  a 
farmer  till  he  was  twenty-one.  But  nature  was  too 
strong  for  circumstance.  A  farmer  he  could  not,  would 
not  be,  and  at  the  age  of  thirteen  he  broke  his  bonds, 
and  started  out  into  the  world  for  himself.  Without 
money,  influence  or  friends,  for  he  had  angered  his 
relatives  by  this  move,  he  struggled  on  for  the  next 
four  years,  doing  whatever  he  could  find  to  do,  and 
going  to  school  whenever  opportunity  offered.  Then 
he  put  his  foot  on  the  first  round  of  the  ladder  ;  he 
obtained  his  first  school.  It  was  at  Corser  Hill, 
Boscawen  (now  Webster),  and  he  was  paid  fifteen 
dollars  per  month. 

This  venture  proved  successful,  though  many  of  his 
pupils  were  older  than  their  teacher,  and  some  (he 
says)  knew  more.  The  next  winter  he  taught  at 
Over-the-Brook  in  the  town  of  Auburn,  for  seventeen 
dollars  a  month,  and  **  boarded  around.''  From  this 
time  his  services  were  in  such  demand  in  the  town, 


INTRODUCTION,  xiil 

that  he  taught,  not  only  the  winter  schools  for  the 
next  three  years,  but  opened  a  *^  select  school "  on  his 
own  account  during  the  autumn  months.  One  term 
of  teaching  in  Hinsdale,  and  one  in  the  grammar 
school  of  his  native  village,  ended  his  work  in  New 
England  for  several  years. 

In  the  fall  of  1859  he  received  a  call  to  the  Prin- 
cipalship"  of  the  graded  school  at  CarroUton,  111.,  and 
there  he  remained  till  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  in 
the  spring  of  1861.  Finding,  then,  that  loyalty  to  the 
Union  was  the  one  qualification  in  a  school-master  for 
which  they  had  no  use  in  that  vicinity,  he  resigned  his 
position  before  his  committee  had  fully  decided  that 
they  wished  for  it,  and  was  immediately  offered  a 
better  one  with  a  higher  salary  at  Alton,  111.  This  he 
declined  and  started  for  the  East,  where  he  at  once 
enrolled  as  a  private  in  the  Fourth  New  Hampshire 
Regiment  just  forming.  He  fought  all  through  the 
war,  became  lieutenant,  captain,  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  brevet-colonel.  He  was  wounded  in  the  throat 
and  chin  at  the  battle  of  Deep  Bottom,  August  i6th, 
1864,  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  confederates  at  Mag- 
nolia, N.  C,  and  released  just  as  peace  was  declared. 
Then  with  the  remnant  of  his  regiment  he  returned  to 
New  Hampshire,  and  was  mustered  out  of  service 
August,  1865. 

At  the  call  of  his  country  he  had  left  the  school- 
room ;  now  she  required  his  services  in  the  field  no 
longer.     Where  next  ?     Many  ways  were  open  to  his 


XIV  INTRODUCTION, 

choice.  Military  preferment,  political  office,  excellent 
business  positions  were  offered  to  him  at  this  time, 
but  he  declined  them  all.  His  passion  for  teaching 
was  too  strong  for  these  to  tempt  him.  He  never 
wavered  for  a  moment,  not  even  when  his  best  worldly 
interests  seemed  to  be  at  stake.  A  teacher  he  was 
born,  a  teacher  he  would  live  and  die.  He  accepted 
the  Principalship  of  the  North  Grammar  School  of 
Manchester,  N.  H.,  at  a  salary  of  eleven  hundred  dol- 
lars, and  held  the  position  for  three  years.  From  there 
he  went  to  Dayton,  Ohio,  in  1869,  to  take  charge  of 
the  school  in  District  No.  i.  Here  he  had  the  super- 
vision not  only  of  the  grammar  grades,  but  of  the 
primary  ;  and  now  his  primary  work  began.  He  had 
all  along  had  his  own  way  of  doing  things,  and  had 
from  the  very  first  his  conception  of  how  teaching 
should  be  done.  Indeed,  he  tells  with  some  amuse- 
ment at  his  own  audacity,  that  when  only  eight  years 
old,  he  rose  in  school  one  day  and  informed  the 
teacher  that  he  didn't  know  how  to  teach  !  Even  war, 
with  all  its  horrors,  did  not  wholly  absorb  his  mind  from 
its  favorite  theme.  Often,  as  he  sat  before  the  camp 
fire,  or  lay  in  his  tent  at  night,  he  studied  how  the 
mind  grows,  and  planned  many  of  the  methods  which 
have  since  made  him  famous.  It  was  in  Manchester 
where  he  used  to  work  all  day,  and  then  spend  half 
the  night  preparing  for  the  next,  that  he  first  began 
to  apply  his  theories.  But  in  the  primary  schools  of 
Dayton,  he  felt  for  the  first  time  that  he  had  begun  at 


INTRODUCTION.  x> 

the  beginning  of  the  great  work  of  mind  development. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  he  became  Principal  of  the 
Dayton  Normal  School,  a  position  he  held  for  two 
years,  being  then  elected  Assistant  Superintendent  of 
the  City  Schools. 

No  one  who  steps  out  of  the  beaten  track  can  walk 
long  in  his  new  path  unchallenged.  To  desert  the 
old,  to  fail  in  respect  for  the  traditional,  to  imply  that 
customary  ways  of  doing  things  might  not  be  the  best 
ways,  is  treason,  and  high  treason.  This  Col.  Parker 
was  made  to  feel,  and  feel  keenly.  Though  a  soldier, 
he  loved  peace  better  than  war,  but  he  began  to  see, 
as  time  went  on,  that  his  fighting  days  were  not  yet 
over.  More  and  more  he  found  himself  antagonizing 
the  convictions  of  his  fellow-teachers,  as  day  by  day 
he  grew  away  from  the  time-honored  traditions  of  his 
vocation.  They  would  not  agree  to  his  views,  he 
could  not  agree  to  theirs  ;  and  one  party  must  be  in 
the  wrong — which  was  it  ?  Where  did  truth  lie  ?  It 
would  seem  with  the  majority.  But  he  would  not 
give  up  what  seemed  to  him  so  clearly  right  without 
reasons.  He  would  consult  the  highest  authorities  in 
the  art  of  teaching,  and  learn  if  he  were  wrong. 
Accordingly,  in  the  fall  of  1872,  he  went  to  Germany, 
and  entered  King  William's  University,  at  Berlin,  for 
a  two  years'  course  in  philosophy,  history,  and  ped- 
agogics. 

It  need  not  be  said  that  his  opinions  found  con- 
firmation strong  in  that  centre  of  intellectual  develop- 


XVI  INTRODUCTION. 

ment  ;  and  he  returned  to  his  native  land  eager  for 
an  opportunity  to  put  his  theories,  now  fully  fledged, 
into  practice.  When  it  comes  to  pass  in  this  world 
that  the  right  man  finds  the  right  place,  we  have  a 
way  of  saying,  *'  How  very  providential  !"  as  if  affairs 
were  only  occasionally  under  the  care  of  Providence. 
But  it  was  certainly  a  singularly  happy  coincidence 
that  just  about  this  time  one  of  the  most  intelligent 
school  committees  of  these  United  States,  located  at 
Quincy,  Mass.,  made  a  discovery  which  forced  them 
to  a  conclusion,  and  that  in  turn  decided  them  to 
make  an  experiment.  Their  discovery  was,  that  after 
eight  years  of  attendance  in  the  public  schools,  "  the 
children  could  neither  write  with  facility  nor  read 
fluently  ;  nor  could  they  speak  or  spell  their  own 
language  very  perfectly.'*  Their  conclusion  was,  ''that 
the  whole  existing  system  was  wrong — a  system  from 
which  the  life  had  gone  out.  The  school  year  had 
become  one  long  period  of  diffusion  and  cram,  and 
smatter  had  become  the  order  of  the  day.*' 

[It  is  not  to  be  understood  by  this  that  the  Quincy 
schools  were  any  worse  than  the  average,  but  merely 
that  they  had  a  committee  intelligent  enough  to  com- 
prehend their  true  condition.] 

Acting  on  this  conclusion,  they  had  decided  to  try 
to  remedy  matters.  But  they  were  busy  men,  not 
specialists  in  education,  and  wise  enough  to  know 
that  they  were  unequal  to  this  difficult  and  delicate 
work.     Thus  they  had  come  to  the  decision  to  find 


INTRODUCTION.  xvii 

some  one  to  do  it  for  them.  They  would  try  the 
experiment  of  having  a  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
That  committee  found  the  man  they  sought,  in  Francis 
W.  Parker.  So  Col.  Parker  went  to  Quincy,  and 
nothing  since  the  time  of  Horace  Mann  has  created 
such  a  sensation  as  his  five  years'  supervision  of  those 
schools. 

Said  his  committee  in  their  report  after  he  had  left 
them,  '*  For  five  years  the  town  had  the  benefit  of  his 
faithful,  intelligent  and  enthusiastic  services.  In 
these  years  he  transformed  our  public  schools.  He 
found  them  machines,  he  left  them  living  organisms  ; 
drill  gave  way  to  growth,  and  the  weary  prison  became 
a  pleasure  house.  His  dominant  intelligence  as  a 
master,  and  his  pervasive  magnetism  as  a  man,  in- 
formed his  school-work.  He  breathed  life,  growth 
and  happiness  into  our  school-rooms.  The  results  are 
plain  to  be  seen  before  the  eyes  of  every  one,  solid, 
substantial,  unmistakable.  They  cannot  be  gainsaid, 
or  successfully  questioned.'*  Said  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  Jr.,  in  his  paper  on  the  "  New  Departure  in 
the  Common  Schools  of  Quincy,"  "  The  revolution 
was  all-pervading.  Nothing  escaped  its  influence  ;  it 
began  with  the  alphabet,  and  extended  into  the  latest 
effort  of  the  grammar-school  course.  So  daring  an 
experiment  as  this  can,  however,  be  tested  in  but  one 
way — by  its  practical  results,  as  proven  by  the  ex- 
perience of  a  number  of  years,  and  testified  to  by 
parents  and  teachers.     Out  of  five  hundred  grammar- 


XVlil  IN  TROD  UCTION, 

school  children,  taken  promiscuously  from  all  the 
schools,  no  less  than  four  hundred  showed  results 
which  were  either  excellent  or  satisfactory,  while  its 
advantages  are  questioned  by  none,  least  of  all  by 
teachers  and  parents.  .  .  .  The  quality  of  the 
'instruction  given  has  been  immeasurably  improved/ V 

Such  a  success  as  this,  heralded  abroad  by  the 
thousands  who  visited  the  Quincy  schools,  could  not 
fail  to  bring  advancement  in  its  train.  Accordingly, 
when  in  1880  Boston  gave  the  country  Superintendent 
a  call  to  ''  come  up  higher,"  and  be  one  of  its  Super- 
visors, he  accepted,  and  at  the  expiration  of  his  time 
of  service  (two  years)  was  re-elected  for  a  second 
term.  In  October,  1882,  Col.  Parker  received  an 
urgent  call  to  the  Principalship  of  the  Cook  County 
Normal  School  (just  outside  Chicago),  at  a  salary  of 
five  thousand  dollars  ;  and  later,  the  same  year,  was 
offered  the  Superintendency  of  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia, at  a  still  higher  salary.  In  December  he  re- 
signed his  position  in  Boston,  and  yielding  to  his 
overmastering  desire  to  teach,  declined  the  office  of 
Superintendent,  which  Philadelphia  would  gladly  have 
given  him,  and  accepted  instead  the  charge  of  the 
Normal  School  in  Illinois.  The  first  day  of  January, 
1883,  he  entered  upon  his  duties  as  Principal  of  the 
Cook  County  Normal  School,  where  he  is  now  work- 
ing with  all  his  characteristic  force  and  spirit. 

With  greater  opportunities  than  have  ever  been 
granted  to  him  before,  with  an  experience  broadened 


INTRODUCTION.  xix 

and  deepened  by  the  failures  and  successes  of  the 
past,  with  his  old-time  energy  and  enthusiasm  no 
whit  abated,  we  have  faith  to  believe  that  the  future 
will  show  results,  which  shall  make  what  he  has  done 
in  the  past  seem  but  the  crudest  of  beginnings. 

THE   MARTHA'S  VINEYARD    LECTURES. 

The  first  of  the  year,  1881,  Col.  Parker  received  an 
urgent  request  from  the  Directors  of  the  Martha's 
Vineyard  Summer  Institute  that  he  should  become 
the  head  of  the  Department  of  Didactics,  at  their 
next  session,  beginning  in  July  of  the  same  year. 
Although  working  already  to  his  utmost,  it  was  a 
great  temptation  to  have  a  few  weeks  of  his  favorite 
pursuit  thus  offered  him  in  the  midst  of  so  much 
supervisory  work.  Consequently,  he  decided  to  give 
three  weeks  of  his  much  needed  summer  rest  for  this 
purpose.  The  matter  being  decided  hastily,  and  at 
the  last  moment,  was  not  properly  advertised,  and  the 
Class  in  Didactics  that  first  year  was  small  to  what  it 
would  otherwise  have  been,  numbering  only  fifty 
members. 

The  following  year,  feeling  that  here  was  an  oppor- 
tunity for  wide-spread  influence,  and  much  good  to  be 
done,  he  returned  to  the  Vineyard.  He  found  that 
his  small  beginning  of  the  summer  before  had  been  a 
true  beginning,  for  not  only  did  many  of  the  class  of 
'81  return,  but  they  showed  that  they  had  been 
making  a  study  of  the  great  art  of  teaching,  and  came 


XX  INTRODUCTION. 

back  better  prepared  for  the  lectures,  by  their  year's 
experience  and  observation.  This  season  the  Class  in 
Didactics  numbered  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty 
members,  representing  twenty-three  States  and  Nova 
Scotia.  Of  this  number  there  were  forty-seven  Prin- 
cipals or  Heads  of  Departments,  seven  Superintend- 
ents, eleven  Kindergartners,  and  two  Institute  Lec- 
turers. The  course  extended  through  five  weeks,  and 
the  following  were  the  Lecturers  and  Teachers : 

Principal,  COL.  FRANCIS  W.  PARKER, 

'*  Art  of  Teaching." 

Dr.  William  T.  Harris, 
*'  History  and  Science  of  Education." 

Dr.  Larkin  Dunton,  Head  Master  of  the  Boston  Normal  School. 
*'  Principles  of  Teaching." 

Prof.  Moses  True  Brown,  Professor  of  Oratory  in  Tuft's  College. 
*'  Reading  in  Grammar  and  High  Schools." 

Prof.  H.  E.  Holt,  Supei'visor  of  Music  in  Public  Schools^  Boston. 
"  Teaching  Music  to  Little  Children." 

Prof.  Hermann  B.  Boisen,  Author  of  Boisen's  New  German  Course, 
"  Principles  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages." 

H.  P.  Warren,  Principal  of  the  N.  H,  State  Normal  School, 
"  Teaching  History." 

Prof.  L.  Alonzo  Butterfield,  Teacher  of  Elocution  at  the  Newton 
Theological  Institution,  and  Associate  Principal  ivith  Alex.   Gra- 
ham Bell,  in  School  of  Vocal  Physiology,  Boston,  Mass. 
"Phonics.** 


INTRODUCTION,  xxi 

Miss  Ruth  R.  Burritt,  principal  Kindergarten  Training  School, 

Phila. 

**  How  to  Teach  Form  by  Moulding  Clay." 

Miss  Hetta  Clement,  First  Assistant,  Coddington  School^  Quincy. 
"  Moulding  Geographical  Forms." 

Mrs.  Mary  D.  Hicks,  Late  Supervisor  of  Drawing,  Syracuse,  N.  Y, 
"  Lessons  on  Drawing." 

Mrs.  M.  Frank  Stuart,  Boston  School  of  Oratory, 
"  The  Delsarte  Method — Its  Uses  and  Abuses." 

Miss  LeliA  E.  Patridge,  Instructor  at  Teachers*  Institutes,  Penn, 
"  Gymnastic  Drill." 

Col.  Parker,  yielding  to  the  strongly  expressed 
desire  of  his  pupils  and  fellow-teachers,  has  consented 
to  resume  his  work  at  the  Institute  the  coming 
season  ;  but  it  will  be  his  last  year  at  the  Vineyard. 
His  regular  work  in  the  West  is  too  arduous  and 
absorbing  to  permit  of  any  outside  interests.  Besides, 
he  cannot  afford  to  fall  before  the  fight  is  ended  ;  and 
not  even  his  splendid  vitality  could  long  endure  the 
strain  of  such  exhausting  and  continuous  labor. 
However  much  we  of  the  East  may  regret  the  loss  of 
his  inspiring  lessons  on  the  great  art  of  teaching,  we 
must  be  willing  to  forego  them  after  this  season,  not 
only  for  his  own  sake — that  his  days  may  be  long, 
but  for  the  sake  of  the  little  children  of  the  land  ;  for 
when  he  dies  they  lose  their  warmest  friend,  ablest 
champion,  and  wisest  benefactor. 

Philadelphia,  March,   1883.  L.  E.  P. 


I     HAVE    carefully  examined    the    MS.    of   the 

"  Notes  of  Talks  on  Teaching  "  prepared  by 
Miss  Patridge,  and  find  it  substantially  correct 

FRANCIS   W.    PARKER. 

Chicago.  Ill.»  April  19,  1883. 


NOTES  OF  TALKS  ON  TEACHING. 


TALK    I. 


PRELIMIN  ARY. 


I  SHALL  try  in  these  lessons  to  help  you  learn  more 
of  the  great  art  of  teaching.  We  have  come  from 
widely  different  sections,  and  are,  for  the  most  part, 
strangers  to  each  other,  and  may  find  it  a  little  difficult 
at  first  to  draw  together.  But  a  common  interest  will 
unite  us  in  the  bonds  of  sympathy  and  good-fellowship. 
We  have  all  seen  teachers  who  were  so  self-satisfied 
that  they  seemed — to  their  own  minds — to  have  rounded 
the  circle  of  teaching,  made  the  circuit  of  knowledge 
and  skill  complete,  and  closed  their  minds  against  the 
entrance  of  all  further  impressions.  Such  can  never 
learn  till  the  barriers  of  conceit  behind  which  they  have 
intrenched  themselves  are  broken  down.  There  are 
others,  the  opposite  of  those  just  described,  who  stand 
like  empty  pitchers  waiting  to  be  filled  ;  they  accept 
any  and  all  methods  which  are  popular,  or  have  some 
show  of  authority.  Such  teachers  are  imitators  merely, 
and  will  change  when  any  novelty  is  brought  to  their 
notice.     No  one  was  ever  great  by  imitation  ;  imitative 


^.o  yvO/ViS"   OF    TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

power  never  leads  up  to  creative  power.  Just  here  let 
me  say  that  I  shall  object  quite  as  strongly  to  your 
taking  the  methods  which  I  may  present,  unquestioned, 
as  I  should  to  your  acceptance  of  others  in  which  I  do 
not  believe. 

Again,  there  are  teachers  who  have  some  good  ways, 
but  who  are  so  prejudiced  that  they  have  no  regard  for 
anything  outside  their  own  work  ;  they  cling  to  the  old, 
have  a  ready-made  objection  to  the  new,  and  have  ceased 
to  examine.  Facts  are  the  eyes  through  which  we  see 
laws.  There  is  no  better  founded  pedagogical  rule  than 
that  the  facts  must  be  known  before  generalizations 
can  be.  It  follows,  then,  logically,  first,  that  we  can- 
not know  which  is  the  better  of  two  methods  without 
knowing  both  ;  second,  that  we  cannot  know  which  is 
the  best  without  knowing  all  ;  and,  third,  that  we  cannot 
know  any  method  without  knowing  the  principles 
which  the  method  applies.  Finally,  no  one  can  fairly 
judge  a  method  by  seeing  it  in  operation  once  or  twice, 
because  the  application  may  not  be  correct,  and  that 
cannot  be  judged  unless  the  foundation  principles  are 
known. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  way  is,  that  teachers  are 
not  willing  to  pay  the  price  of  genuine  success — that  is, 
untiring  study  in  the  most  economical  directions — hard 
labor.  The  demand  for  good  teaching  was  never  so 
great  as  now,  and  no  matter  where  you  are,  if  your  work 
is  good  it  will  attract  attention. 

I  have  been  often  asked  to  explain  the  so-called 
Quincy  system.  So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  under- 
stand this  system,  it  does  not  consist  of  methods  with 


PRELIMINARY.  21 

certain  fixed  details,  but  rather  presents  the  art  of 
teaching  as  the  greatest  art  in  all  the  world  ;  and 
because  it  is  the  greatest  art,  demands  two  things  :  first, 
an  honest,  earnest  investigation  of  the  truth  as  found  in 
the  learning  mind  and  the  subjects  taught;  and,  second, 
the  courageous  application  of  the  truth  when  found.  In 
the  talks  which  follow,  the  only  real  substantial  help 
I  can  give  you  is  to  aid  you  in  such  investigation.  All 
the  truths  that  you  may  learn  must  be  discovered  by 
yourselves.  In  this  way  alone  truth  is  made  a  living 
power.  Nothing  is  farther  from  my  present  purpose 
than  to  have  you  take  what  I  shall  say  without  the  most 
careful  scrutiny.  The  great  mass  of  teachers  simply 
follow  tradition,  without  questioning  whether  it  be  right 
or  wrong,  and  it  requires  very  little  mental  action  to 
glide  in  the  ruts  of  old  ways. 

The  work  of  the  next  hundred  years  will  be  to  break 
away  from  traditional  forms  and  come  back  to  natural 
methods. 

Every  act  has  a  motive,  and  it  is  the  motive  which 
colors,  directs,  forms  the  action.  Consequently,  if  we 
would  understand  the  educational  work  of  to-day,  we 
must  know  its  motive,  bearing  in  mind  the  fact  that 
due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  stupefying  effects 
of  long-established  usage.  The  motive  commonly  held 
up  is  the  acquisition  of  a  certain  degree  of  skill  and  an 
amount  of  knowledge.  The  quantity  of  skill  and  knowl- 
edge is  generally  fixed  by  courses  of  study  and  the 
conventional  examinations.  This  is  a  mistake.  In  con- 
trast with  this  false  motive  of  education,  to  wit,  the 
gaining  of  skill  and  knowledge,  I  place  what  I  firmly 


22  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

believe  to  be  the  true  motive  of  all  education,  which  is 
the  harmonious  development  of  the  human  being,  body, 
mind,  and  soul.  This  truth  has  come  to  us  gradually 
and  in  fragments  from  the  great  teachers  and  thinkers 
of  the  past.  It  was  two  hundred  years  ago  that 
Comenius  said,  **  Let  things  that  have  to  be  done  be 
learned  by  doing  them.'*  Following  this,  but  broader 
and  deeper  in  its  significance,  came  Pestalozzi's  declara- 
tion, **  Education  is  the  generation  of  power."  Last  of 
all,  summing  up  the  wisdom  of  those  who  had  preceded 
him,  and  embodying  it  in  one  grand  principle,  Froebel 
announced  the  true  end  and  aim  of  all  our  work — the 
harmonious  growth  of  the  whole  being.  This  is  the 
central  point.  Every  act,  thought,  plan,  method,  and 
question  should  lead  to  this.  Knowledge  and  skill  are 
simply  the  means  and  not  the  end,  and  these  are  to 
work  toward  the  symmetrical  upbuilding  of  the  whole 
being.  Another  name  for  this  symmetrical  upbuilding 
is  character,  which  should  be  the  end  and  aim  of  all 
education.  There  are  two  factors  in  this  process  :  first, 
the  inborn,  inherited  powers  of  the  mind,  and,  second, 
the  environment  of  the  mind,  which  embraces,  so  far 
as  the  teacher  is  concerned,  the  subjects  taught.  The 
subjects  taught,  then,  are  the  means  of  mental  develop- 
ment. To  aid  in  the  mind's  development  the  teacher 
must  know,  first,  the  means  of  mental  and  moral  growth, 
which  are  found  in  the  subjects  taught  ;  and,  second, 
the  mental  laws  by  which  alone  these  means  can  be 
applied.  Knowing  the  mind  and  the  means,  he  can 
work  toward  the  end,  which  is  growth.  Method  is 
the  adaptation   of    means   of  growth   to   mind   to    be 


PRELIMINAR  V.  23 

developed,  and  natural  method  is  the  exacf  adaptation 
of  means  of  growth  to  mind  to  be  developed.  To  ac- 
quire a  knowledge  of  the  mind  and  of  the  means  by 
which  the  mind  may  be  developed  is  the  study  of  a 
lifetime.  Let  us  stand  with  humility  before  immensity. 
In  the  beginning,  then,  the  study  of  methods  aside 
from  principles  is  of  little  use  ;  therefore,  that  investiga- 
tion should  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  principles  is  all-im- 
portant. There  are  two  lines  of  investigation  :  the  direct 
one  is  the  study  of  mental  laws,  or  the  investigation  of 
the  facts  out  of  which  the  generalization  of  principles  is 
made.  The  second,  and  indirect  way,  is  the  study  of 
the  application  of  methods  in  detail,  in  order  to  discover 
through  such  details  the  principles  from  which  they 
spring.  Let  no  teacher  rest  satisfied  with  a  study  of 
the  mere  details  of  methods,  but  use  them  as  illus- 
trating and  leading  back  to  principles. 

TECHNICAL   SKILL. 

In  order  to  train  children  how  to  do,  we  must  be  able 
to  do  ourselves  ;  hence  the  great  importance  of  that 
preparation  on  the  part  of  a  teacher  which  will  result 
in  skill  in  the  technics  of  school  work.  First  of  all,  the 
voice  should  be  trained,  for  a  clear  musical  voice  is  one 
of  the  teacher's  most  potent  qualifications  for  success, 
and  cannot  be  overrated.  Drill  in  phonics  is  necessary, 
not  only  to  gain  the  ability  to  give  the  slow  pronun- 
ciation with  ease  and  with  natural  inflections,  but  as  an 
aid  to  perfect  articulation  and  pronunciation.  That 
every  teacher  should  be  an  expressive  reader  is  self- 
evident,  but  it  might  not  occur  to  all  that  to  be  an  elo- 


24  NOTES  OF    TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

quent  talker  is  also  one  of  the  requisites  demanded  by 
the  New  Methods.  Faults  of  tone,  modulation,  and 
manner  are  propagated  by  the  teacher,  as  well  as  false 
syntax  and  incorrect  pronunciation.  Then,  too,  every 
teacher  should  be  able  to  sing,  and  sing  well.  Music 
fills  the  air  with  beauty,  and  in  the  school-room  every- 
thing should  be  quiet  and  musical,  with  never  a  harsh 
note.  Failing  in  this  the  school  lacks  harmony. 
Writing  is  the  second  great  means  of  language  expres- 
sion, and  should  follow  immediately  upon  talking.  A 
teacher  who  cannot  write  well,  cannot  teach  writing 
well  ;  for  the  copy  on  the  blackboard  should  be  well 
nigh  perfect.  Skill  is  the  expression  of  power,  and 
drawing  is  the  second  best  way  of  expressing  thought. 
Given  the  skill  to  draw,  and  a  teacher  is  never  helpless, 
for  then  he  can  teach,  even  if  everything  else  is  taken 
away.  Besides,  I  see  a  future  in  drawing  which  I  see  in 
nothing  else  in  the  way  of  developing  the  mental 
powers  ;  hence  the  demands  made  upon  teachers  for 
knowledge  and  skill  in  this  art  must  increase  with  every 
year.  Moulding  in  sand  is  one  of  the  best  possible 
ways  to  teach  geography,  and  should  precede  map 
drawing.  Moulding  in  clay  is  a  valuable  means  of  form 
teaching,  and  is  also  the  best  of  preparations  for  draw- 
ing. Last  of  all,  gymnastics — the  training  of  the  whole 
body — is  of  the  utmost  importance,  not  only  to  in- 
sure symmetrical  physical  development,  but  to  aid  in 
the  establishment  of  good  order.  Mental  action,  as  you 
know,  depends  largely  upon  physical  conditions,  and 
therefore  we  should  train  the  body  that  the  mind  may 
act.     Believing  that  the  skill  of   the    teacher  in  these 


PRELIMINAR  F.  25 

directions  measures  in  a  great  degree  his  power  to  do 
good  work,  1  have  endeavored  in  this  course  of  lessons 
to  provide  you  with  the  best  of  teachers  for  these 
different  departments.  Now,  a  word  of  caution  :  time 
and  strength  are  both  limited,  therefore  don't  try  too 
much  ;  but  that  you  may  become  experts  in  these  tech- 
nical matters,  let  me  add,  whatever  you  do  try,  be  sure 
to  follow  it  up. 


TALK    II. 

READING. 

In  the  teaching  of  any  subject  it  is  of  great  impor- 
tance that  we  have  a  clear  definition  of  what  we  teach. 
Not  a  definition  in  words  alone,  but  a  definition  in 
thought  that  comprehends  what  we  teach  in  the  most 
definite  manner.  The  question  before  us  .is,  What  is 
reading  ?  The  answer  to  this  question  that  I  shall  give, 
is,  Reading  is  getting  thought  by  means  of  written  or 
printed  words  arranged  in  sentences.  Thought  may  be 
defined  as  ideas  in  relation.  Ideas  are  either  sense 
products,  or  derivations  from  sense  products.  We  get 
thought,  first,  by  seeing  objects  in  their  relations  ; 
second,  by  thinking  of  things  in  their  relations  without 
their  presence  ;  third,  by  seeing  pictures  or  drawings 
of  objects  in  their  relations  ;  and  fourth,  by  language. 
We  get  thought  by  language  in  two  ways.  First,  by  the 
spoken  language,  and,  second,  by  the  written  or  printed 
language.  To  illustrate,  I  put  this  hat  upon  the  table. 
Here  you  see  the  relation  of  two  objects,  and  you  think 
The  hat  is  on  the  table.  I  draw  or  sketch  the  hat  on  the 
table,  and  it  brings  to  your  mind  the  thought  The  hat  is 
on  the  table,  I  say,  "  The  hat  is  on  the  table,"  and  you 
think  the  same.  I  write  on  the  board  the  sentence,  The 
hat  is  on  the  table^  and  that  conveys  to  your  mind  the  same 


READING,  27 

ideas  in  their  relations.  Thus  we  get  the  same  thought 
in  four  ways  ;  the  only  difference  in  the  result  is,  that 
the  thought  gained  from  seeing  objects  in  their  rela- 
tions is  generally  clearer. 

Hearing  language  is  getting  thought  by  means  of 
spoken  words  arranged  in  sentences.  Reading,  as  I 
have  said,  is  getting  thought  by  means  of  written  or 
printed  words  arranged  in  sentences.  It  would  be  well 
for  us  to  examine  these  two  operations,  hearing 
language,  and  reading,  in  order  to  see  in  what  they  are 
alike,  and  in  what  the}'-  differ.  The  arrangement  of 
words  in  sentences,  that  is  the  idioms,  are  precisely 
alike.  The  thought  in  the  mind,  gained  either  from 
hearing  language  or  reading,  is  identical.  The  only 
difference  lies,  then  in  the  fact,  that  in  one  case  the  word 
is  spoken,  and  in  the  other  it  is  written  or  printed.  I  am 
sure  you  have  said,  as  I  have  given  my  definition,  that 
reading  is  the  oral  expression  of  thought.  That  is  oral 
reading.  But  you  will  see  at  once  that  we  may  get 
thought — and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  reading  is  con- 
fined to  this  process — and  not  give  it  to  others  by  means 
of  the  voice.  If  we  comprehend  oral  reading  in  our 
definition,  we  should  say  that  reading  is  the  getting 
and  giving  of  thought  by  means  of  words  arranged  in 
sentences. 

Not  less  in  importance  to  the  definition  of  reading,  is 
the  thorough  knowledge  of  the  preparation  a  child  has 
made  for  learning  to  read,  how  he  has  made  it,  and 
exactly  what  is  to  be  done  in  learning  to  read.  This 
may  be  briefly  stated  thus  :  First,  a  child  has  acquired 
ideas  from  the  external  world  by  means  of  his  senses 


28  NOTES  OF   TALKS   ON    TEACHING. 

Second,  he  knows  the  ideas  in  their  relations,  that  is, 
he  has  thoughts.  Third,  the  child  has  associated  spo- 
ken words  with  these  ideas.  Fourth,  he  has  asso- 
ciated idioms  or  forms  of  sentences  with  his  thoughts. 
Fifth,  he  has  learned  to  utter  these  words  and  idioms 
in  order  to  express  his  thoughts.  This  is  a  brief  sum- 
mary of  the  process  of  learning  to  talk.  How  he  has 
done  this  will  be  discussed  in  another  place.  Exactly 
what  the  child  has  to  do  in  order  to  learn  to  read  may 
be  clearly  stated  thus  :  The  ideas  that  he  has  associated 
with  spoken  words  are  to  be  associated  with  written  or 
printed  words.  If  I  am  not  mistaken,  this  is  the  sum 
and  substance  of  learning  to  read. 

Oral  reading  may  be  further  defined  as  the  vocal  ex- 
pression of  thought  that  is  gained  by  written  or  printed 
words.  A  child  has  already  learned  to  express  thought 
orally,  by  means  of  ^"vq  or  six  years'  continual  practice. 
The  emphasis,  inflection,  and  melody  of  most  children's 
voices  can  rarely  be  improved.  The  child  should  be 
trained  in  no  new  way,  then,  of  expressing  thought  in 
oral  reading.  Unfortunately  the  beauty  and  strength  of 
what  the  child  has  already  gained  is  entirely  ignored, 
and  a  new  and  very  painful  process  of  oral  expression  is 
initiated.  What  is  the  use  of  oral  reading?  Talking 
enables  us  to  see  the  thought  in  the  child's  mind  ;  oral 
reading,  to  the  teacher  has  no  other  use.  Oral  reading, 
then,  enables  the  teacher  to  know  whether  the  thought 
is  in  the  child's  mind  in  its  fulness,  strength  and 
intensity.  If,  however,  the  long  preparation  of  the 
child  in  talking  is  overlooked,  and  a  new  and  stumbling 
process  of  slowly  pronouncing  words  is  begun,  the  in- 


READING,  29 

dispensable  function  of  oral  reading  is  entirely  destroyed. 
The  thought  may  or  may  not  be  in  the  child's  mind,  his 
half-groaning  utterances  never  reveal  the  fact. 

What  is  the  use  of  reading  ?  We  return  to  our  defini- 
tion :/reading  is  getting  thought  by  means  of  written  or 
printed  words  arranged  in  sentences.)  Comprehensively 
stated,  reading  opens  to  the  mind  all  the  learning  and 
erudition  of  the  past.  To  the  teacher,  however,  it  is  of 
the  utmost  importance,  for  reading  is  thinking,  and 
thinking  is  the  mind's  mode  of  action  ;  and  all  mental 
development  is  rightly  directed  toward  action.  Study 
of  text  books,  then,  if  it  differ  from  reading,  the  differ- 
ence may  be  found  simply  and  solely  in  intensity.  In 
study  the  thought  gained  may  be  clearer  and  more  com- 
plete than  in  mere  reading.  You  can  judge  for  your- 
selves then,  fellow  teachers,  of  what  immense  importance 
it  is  for  the  little  child  to  form  correct  habits  of  reading  ; 
and  you  know  by  experience  how  easily  incorrect  habits 
may  be  cultivated,  habits  that  will  dishearten  a  child  in 
his  attempts  to  read,  and  make  words,  instead  of  being 
clear  mediums  of  getting  thought,  actual  barriers  to 
the  truth  they  were  intended  to  convey. 


TALK    III. 

READING. — THE    WORD. 

The  child  at  five  years  of  age  has  acquired  ideas  in 
their  relations,  has  associated  spoken  words  with  these 
ideas,  and  idioms  with  the  thoughts  or  related  ideas. 
The  process  of  learning  to  read,  then,  must  consist  of 
learning  to  use  the  written  and  printed  word  precisely 
as  he  has  used  the  spoken  words.  Learning  to  read 
is  learning  a  vocabulary  of  written  and  printed  words, 
so  that  the  child  may  get  thought  through  the  eye 
as  he  has  done  through  the  ear.  It  is  a  matter  of 
great  interest  to  the  teacher  of  little  ones  to  know 
just  how  the  child  acquires  the  spoken  words.  The 
process  is  a  very  simple  one  ;  an  object  is  presented  and 
the  word  spoken.  That  is,  the  idea  produced  by  the 
object  and  the  spoken  word  are  associated  in  one  act  of 
the  mind,  which  we  call  an  act  of  association.  We  all 
know  that  only  by  means  of  a  mysterious  mental  law, 
called  the  law  of  association,  are  we  enabled  to  recollect 
anything.  Words  are  used  under  this  law  to  recall 
ideas.  The  word  recalls  an  idea  after  a  certain  number 
of  repetitions  of  these  acts  of  association.  In  the  same 
way  related  ideas  are  associated  with  idioms  or  sen- 
tence forms. 

Every  act  of  the  mind  is  affected  by  some  stimulus  or 


READING,— THE   WORD.  31 

mental  excitement  coming  either  from  without  or  within 
the  mind.  As;  a  rule,  the  greater  the  stimulus  the  more 
effective  the  act.  The  little  child,  for  instance,  sees  an 
elephant  for  the  first  time.  The  sight  of  the  huge, 
strange  beast  stimulates  the  mental  action  of  the  child 
to  an  unwonted  degree.  The  perpetual  question  of  the 
little  one,  "  What  is  that  ?"  comes  to  his  lips  with  great 
fervor.  The  answer,  **  The  elephant,  my  child,**  will  be 
likely  to  remain  in  its  mind  forever.  The  spoken  word, 
then,  is  acquired  by  repeated  acts  of  association.  The 
number  of  these  acts  necessary  depends  in  a  great  de- 
gree upon  the  stimulus  of  each  act.  For  instance, 
the  greater  the  stimulus  the  less  the  number  of  acts 
of  association  required,  and  vice  versa.  What  we  have 
said  of  wor  Js  may  also  be  applied  to  the  learning  of 
idioms. 

Now,  the  question  is,  in  learning  the  new  means  of  re- 
calling ideas  by  means  of  the  written  words,  should 
there  be  the  slightest  change  in  the  general  method  ?  A 
word  is  used  simply  and  solely  to  recall  an  idea.  It  has 
no  other  use.  It  can  be  learned  only  by  association 
with  the  idea  recalled  ;  and  the  sole  question  for  the 
teacher  is,  to  know  how  best  to  associate  words  with 
ideas.  I  think  we  can  lay  down  this  one  rule  as  funda- 
mental :  in  all  the  teaching  and  the  study  of  the  art 
of  teaching,  little  children  to  read  ,  that  that  which 
aids  directly  in  acts  of  association  of  words  with  their 
appropriate  ideas,  aids  the  child  in  learning  to  read,  and 
any  other  method,  detail  of  method  or  device  that  does 
not  aid  the  mind  in  these  acts,  hinders  the  child  in 
learning  to  read.     To  this  one  rule,  then,  all  our  discus- 


32  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

sion  of  the  art  of  teaching  reading  must  return.  Every- 
thing must  be  reconciled  with  this  or  it   is  wrong. 

The  first  question,  then,  is,  What  is  the  best  way  of 
bringing  about  the  acts  of  association  with  the  best  pos- 
sible stimulus  ?  It  is  plain  common-sense  to  continue  the 
method  that  has  developed  a  fixed  and  powerful  habit 
of  learning  new  words,  namely,  the  presentation  of  ob- 
jects as  the  highest  and  best  stimulus  to  acts  of  associa- 
tion. This  is  strikingly  true  in  teaching  the  first  few 
words.  The  written  or  printed  word  is  a  new,  strange 
object.  It  repels  rather  than  attracts.  No  stimulus, 
then,  can  be  found  in  the  strange  hieroglyphics  that 
look  more  mysterious  to  the  child  than  Hebrew  or 
Sanscrit  do  to  us.  Tide  the  child  over  his  first  difliculties 
by  using  the  active  energy  of  a  fixed  habit.  Simply 
repeat  that  which  has  been  repeated  thousands  of  times, 
present  the  object  (a  fp^vorite  one  of  the  child's),  and  say 
the  word,  not  with  the  lips  but  with  the  chalk.  The 
child's  consciousness  is  filled  with  interest  for  the  ob- 
ject, leaving  just  room  enough  for  the  new  form  to 
find  a  resting-place.  On  the  other  hand,  try  to  fill  the 
child's  mind  with  the  word  itself,  and  you  fill  his  soul 
with  disgust.- 

The  spoken  word  has  been  learned  as  a  whole. 
It  is  more  complex,  and  therefore  more  difficult  to 
learn  than  the  written  word.  Every  spoken  word  is 
learned  as  a  whole,  and  we  have  no  reason  to  believe 
that  the  child  has  the  slightest  consciousness  that  the 
spoken  word  has  any  elementary  parts.  The  attempt  to 
teach  him  the  elementary  parts  of  a  spoken  word,  while 
he  is  learning  to   talk,  would  prove  disastrous.     Why, 


READING.^THE   WORD.  H 

then,  should  not  the  written  word  be  learned  as  a 
whole  ?  Why  introduce  a  new  process,  when  the  old 
one  has  been  so  effectual  ?  Indeed,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  any  attempt  to  separate  the  written  word  into  parts, 
or  to  combine  the  parts  of  a  word  into  a  whole,  directly 
and  effectually  hinders  the  acts  of  association,  and  there- 
fore obstructs  the  action  of  the  child's  mind  in  learn- 
ing to  read.  The  tendency  of  unscientific  teaching  has 
set  steadily  and  strongly  for  the  last  thirty  years 
toward  woful  and  useless  complications  in  details  of 
instruction.  The  return  to  real  teaching  is  signalized 
by  a  strong  leaning  toward  simplicity.  The  height  of 
the  art  of  teaching,  as  in  all  other  lesser  arts,  is  found  in 
simplicity.  Hold  up  the  object  and  write  the  name. 
Say  just  enough  to  lead  to  the  proper  mental  action  and 
no  more.  The  fewer  words  the  better.  Begin  with  ob- 
jects. Select  those  objects  most  interesting  to  the  child. 
Next  to  objects  I  shall  place  sketches  upon  the  black- 
board, done  in  the  presence  of  the  child,  so  they  may  be 
associated  with  the  names  of  the  things  drawn,  and  the 
sentences  that  express  the  relations  of  the  objects. 
Third,  pictures  may  be  used  effectively.  Fourth,  con- 
versations of  the  teacher  that  will  bring  the  ideas  to  be 
associated  with  words  vividly  into  the  child's  conscious- 
ness. Fifth,  stories  may  be  told  with  the  same  result. 
How  long  should  objects  be  used  ?  Until  the  child  will 
actively  associate  new  words  with  ideas  without  the 
presence  of  the  objects  or  pictures  of  the  objects  that 
produced  the  ideas.  No  teacher  who  watches  the  faces 
of  her  little  ones  will  fail  to  note  when  this  time  has 
fully  come. 


34  NOTES   OF    TALKS   ON   TEACHING. 

If  the  principles  that  I  have  here  given  are  true,  then 
you  will  have  a  basis  of  truth  for  the  discussion  of 
the  art  of  teaching  little  children  to  read.  This  method, 
to  use  a  popular  but  not  a  correct  term,  may  be  called 
the  associative  or  objective  method.  Learning  the  word 
as  a  whole,  without  trying  to  fix  the  child's  attention 
upon  its  parts  before  it  becomes  a  clear  object  in  the 
mind,  is  called  the  ''word  method." 

The  question,  no  doubt,  will  arise  in  your  minds,  if  the 
old  alphabet  method  is  entirely  laid  aside  and  the  phonic 
method  is  not  used  at  the  outset  for  the  analysis  of 
words  :  How  is  the  form  of  the  word  fixed  in  the  mind  ? 
The  answer  is  a  simple  one  :  The  best  way  to  fix  any 
form  in  the  mind  is  to  draw  it. 


TALK    IV. 


READING. — THE  SENTENCE. 


I  WILL  repeat  thefundamental  principle  of  the  art  of 
teaching  reading.  Learning  to  read  is  learning  a 
vocabulary  of  written  and  printed  words.  Each  word  is 
learned  by  repeated  acts  of  association  of  the  idea  and 
the  word.  That  which  helps  in  these  acts  of  association, 
and  that  alone,  should  be  used  in  teaching  reading.  All 
other  means  are  hindrances.  I  have  shown  that  the 
effectiveness  of  the  acts  of  association  depends  on  the 
stimulus  or  excitement  to  the  act.  This  stimulus  comes 
primarily  and  mainly  from  the  side  of  the  idea.  The 
vividness  of  the  idea  or  mental  picture  in  the  conscious- 
ness, with  the  appropriate  word,  determines  the  result. 
The  greatest  difficulty  to  be  found  in  the  process  of 
learning  to  read  is  in  learning  the  first  few  words.  The 
habit,  so  strong  in  the  mind,  of  learning  the  spoken 
word,  is  to  be  carried  over  and  used  as  a  power  in  learn- 
ing the  written  word.  The  word  itself  should  be 
subordinate  and  secondary  in  interest  to  the  child,  to 
the  idea  that  excites  the  mind.  The  word  is  to  be 
learned  consciously  as  a  whole,  and  any  attempt  to 
analyze  or  synthesize  it  hinders  the  act  of  association  by 
absorbing  the  attention.  The  means  used  to  arouse  the 
mind  to  acts  of  association,  I  have  told  you,  are,  objects, 


36  NOTES  OF    TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

drawings  upon  the  blackboard,  made  under  the  eye  of 
the  pupil,  pictures,  conversations,  and  stories.  But 
there  is  another  and  still  stronger  means  of  association 
after  the  first  few  words  have  been  learned,  and  that  is 
the  arrangement  of  words  that  recalls  ideas  in  their  re- 
lations or  thought.  Every  object  that  we  recall  or  think 
of  is  recalled  in  space.  The  more  interesting  the  re- 
lation of  the  ideas  one  to  another,  the  stronger  will  be 
the  association.  That  is,  it  is  a  great  help  in  learning 
words  to  learn  them  in  sentences.  We  do  not  learn 
the  word  in  order  to  read  the  sentence,  but  we  read  the 
sentence  in  order  to  learn  the  word.  The  question  may 
here  be  asked,  Why  not  begin  with  the  sentence,  as  many 
do, with  great  success?  My  answer  is,  that  the  first  written 
v>rords,  as  I  have  said,  present  the  greatest  difficulties  to 
the  child.  We  can  hardly  comprehend  how  mysterious 
the  strange  forms  are  to  the  little  one.  We  may  get  an 
inkling  of  the  trouble  if  we  have  ever  begun  Greek, 
Hebrew,  or  Sanscrit.  We  may  recall  the  fear  that  came 
over  us,  when  we  looked  forward  to  the  time  when  we 
must  use  the  meaningless  forms  to  get  thought.  The 
successful  learning  of  the  first  few  words,  it  seems  to 
me,  depends  upon  presenting  the  simplest  obstacle  to  be 
overcome,  and  in  making  the  child,  the  little  learner,  as 
unconscious  as  possible  of  the  difficulty.  The  simplest 
step,  then,  consists  in  following  a  fixed  and  powerful 
habit  of  the  child,  by  presenting  a  favorite  object,  and 
saying  with  the  chalk  just  what  the  tongue  has  so  often 
repeated.  I  have  no  doubt  but  what  the  skilful  teacher 
could  successfully  begin  with  a  whole  sentence.  My 
point   is,  that   it   is  much  simpler  and  easier  to  begin 


READING.— THE   SENTENCE.  37 

with  the  single  words.  Just  as  soon,  however,  as  a  few 
words  have  been  learned,  for  instance,  fifteen  or  twenty, 
short  sentences  should  be  taught  by  the  objective  plan  ; 
so  that  when  the  child  sees  the  sentence  he  is  able  to 
get  the  thought  that  it  expresses.  There  are  many 
words  that  mean  nothing  alone,  which  should  always 
be  taught  in  phrases  or  sentences. 

We  come  now  to  the  discussion  of  oral  reading,  or 
getting  thought  by  means  of  written  or  printed  words 
arranged  in  sentences.  A  thought  is  ideas  in  their  re- 
lations, and  may  be  called  the  unit  of  mental  action.  A 
sentence,  therefore,  is  the  unit  of  expression.  We  can- 
not learn  a  single  word  without  recalling  the  idea  it  ex- 
presses in  some  relation.  You  will  remember  what  I  have 
said  concerning  the  different  ways  of  getting  thought. 
First,  directly  through  the  senses,  by  seeing,  hearing, 
etc.,  objects  in  their  relations.  Second,  by  pictures  and 
drawings.  Third,  by  language,  both  oral  and  written. 
In  all  these  cases  the  thought  is  the  same  in  the  mind, 
differing  only  in  degrees  of  intensity.  The  written  sen- 
tence is  simply  one  way  of  getting  thought.  The  child 
has  already,  by  long  and  continued  practice,  learned  to 
talk,  and  to  talk  well.  One  thing  above  all  others  I 
wish  to  impress  upon  your  minds,  here  and  now — do 
not  teach  him  to  talk  in  any  other  way — that  is,  when 
he  gets  the  thought  by  means  of  the  written  sentence, 
let  him  say  it  as  he  always  has.  Changing  the  beautiful 
power  of  expression,  full  of  melody,  harmony,  and  cor- 
rect emphasis  and  inflection,  to  the  slow,  painful, 
almost  agonizing  pronunciation  that  we  have  heard  so 
many  times  in  the  school-room,  is  a  terrible  sin  that  we 


38  NOTES  OF   T A  Lies  ON   TEACHING, 

should  never  be  guilty  of.  There  is  indeed  not  the 
slightest  need  of  changing  a  good  habit  to  a  miserable 
one,  if  we  would  follow  the  rule  that  the  child  has 
naturally  followed  all  his  life.  (jVever  allow  a  child  to  give 
a  thought  until  he  gets  it,  )  Remember,  and  keep  on  re- 
membering, my  dear  teacners,  that  the  child  has  learned 
to  talk,  and  that  that  teaching  which  mangles  this  grand 
power  is  needless  and  worse  than  useless.  Let  the  child 
get  the  thought  himself,  in  the  easiest  possible  way,  by 
means  of  the  written  sentences.  One  of  the  worst  ways 
of  teaching  reading  may  be  called,  for  want  of  a  better 
term,  the  method  of  imitation.  Now  you  will  see  that 
the  valuable  act  of  the  mind,  the  thing  to  be  done,  is 
the  child's  getting  the  thought  for  himself  and  by  him- 
self by  the  means,  I  repeat,  of  written  words.  If  the 
teacher  reads  the  sentence  to  the  child,  the  child  gets 
the  thought  through  the  ear  from  the  teacher's  lips,  and 
the  one  thing  he  ought  to  do  is  prevented.  I  do  not 
wish  to  be  understood  that  the  teacher  should  not  read 
to  the  child.  The  teacher  should  make  herself  the  best 
possible  model  of  good  reading,  and  through  her  read- 
ing present  a  high  ideal  of  expression  for  the  child  to 
attain.  What  I  wish  to  impress  upon  you  is,  the  one 
pedagogical  principle  that  stands  above  all  others — we 
learn  to  do  by  doing.  Oral  reading  has  one  function, 
one  use  to  the  teacher  ;  it  is  a  means  of  knowing,  as  I 
have  said  in  a  former  talk,  whether  the  thought  is  in 
the  mind  of  the  reader,  how  it  is  there,  if  every  relation 
is  known,  and  the  intensity  of  the  thought  felt  by  the 
reader.  This  grand  function  of  oral  reading  may  be 
perverted  or  entirely  destroyed.    First  and  foremost,  by 


READING.—  THE  SENTENCE.  39 

not  waiting  for  the  child  to  get  the  whole  thought 
before  he  gives  it.  Second,  by  training  the  child  to 
imitate  the  teacher's  voice,  her  pauses,  emphasis  and 
inflection  ;  and,  third,  by  a  useless  struggle  with  the 
parts  of  the  word  in  forcing  analysis  before  the  whole 
word  is  clearly  in  the  mind.  The  alphabet  method  is 
the  best  possible  means  of  obstructing  the  mental  action 
of  the  child  in  learning  Lo  read  ;  too  early  phonic 
analysis  the  next.  With  the  child  thought  has  always 
controlled  expression.  Why  siiould  we  throw  this 
grand  power  aside,  and  try  to  teach  a  child  oral 
expression  by  means  of  pauses  and  imitated  inflection 
and  emphasis  ?  The  initial  capital  of  a  sentence  and  the 
punctuation  have  one  use — they  enable  the  child  to  get 
the  thought.  When  the  thought  is  in  the  mind  they 
have  no  use.  You  will  see,  then,  that  if  you  follow  the 
principle — thought  controls  expression — much  of  the 
labor  and  toil  of  the  teacher,  in  trying  to  force  artificial 
expression  by  training  a  child  to  pause  at  commas  and 
periods,  to  raise  the  voice  or  let  it  fall  at  the  end  of 
sentences,  to  give  stress  when  they  see  diacritical  marks, 
is  not  only  useless,  but  positively  injurious  and 
nonsensical. 


TALK    V, 


READING .  — SCRIPT. 


The  written  word  to  the  little  child  has  no  element 
of  attraction.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a  repelling  ob- 
ject. I  have  tried  to  show  how  the  difficulties  of  learn- 
ing the  first  words  may  be  overcome  by  the  stimulus  of 
the  idea  in  acts  of  association.  It  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance  to  steadily  overcome  the  repulsion  oc- 
casioned by  the  written  word.  This  repulsion  will  grow 
less  and  less,  and  the  acts  of  association  will  be  made 
easier  by  continued  familiarity  with  the  new  forms,  if 
the  interest  and  the  appetite  of  the  child  for  words  is 
sedulously  cultivated,  through  the  pleasure  that  the  ob- 
jects and  pictures  excite.  All  words  are  made,  as  you 
know,  of  only  twenty-six  different  forms.  The  less 
the  mental  action  it  requires  to  see  these  forms,  the  easier 
will  be  the  acts  of  association.  It  is  important  to  im- 
press these  forms  upon  the  mind  in  an  easy,  natural, 
semi-unconscious  way.  As  I  have  shown,  the  best  pos- 
sible way  to  impress  the  word  forms  upon  the  mind,  is 
to  write  them — to  make  them.  We  hear  the  objection 
very  often  that  a  child  does  not  learn  the  letters  by  the 
new  method.  He  does  not  learn  their  names,  but  he 
learns  them  by  continually  making  them.  What  is  the 
best  proof  that  any  object  is  clearly  in  the  mind  ?    A 


READING —SCRIPT,  41 

word  description  is  weak  beside  the  representation  of  the 
object  in  drawing.  This  brings  us  to  the  question  so 
often  mooted,  whether  we  should  use  print  at  the  be- 
ginning, or  print  and  script,  or  script  alone.  I  will  try 
and  present  the  arguments  in  favor  of  using  script  alone, 
not  denying,  however,  that  script  and  print  may  be 
used  at  the  same  time  with  good  effect.  When  two 
or  more  ways  of  teaching  are  presented,  all  of  which  may 
be  defended  by  good  reasons,  reasons  that  do  not 
directly  violate  a  principle,  the  question  of  choice  then 
becomes  a  question  of  economy.  If  we  begin  with 
print,  it  certainly  fixes  the  printed  forms  in  the  mind 
by  reproducing  them  on  the  slates,  so  that  if  the  teacher 
uses  print  alone  at  the  beginning,  she  should  train  the 
children  to  make  the  printed  forms.  But,  making  the 
printed  forms  is  not  a  means  of  expression  that  a  child 
ever  uses  after  the  first  few  months,  or  the  first  year. 
Writing  is  the  second  great  means  of  language  ex- 
pression. It  should  be  put  into  the  power  of  the  child 
just  as  soon  as  possible,  in  order  that  he  may  express  his 
thoughts  as  freely  with  the  pencil  as  with  the  tongue. 
This  fact  needs  no  argument.  Written  expression  is  as 
great  a  help  to  mental  development  as  oral  expression  ; 
and,  indeed,  in  many  respects,  it  stands  higher.  Written 
expression  is  silent,  the  child  must  give  his  own 
thought,  in  his  own  way  ;  thus  developing  individuality. 
The  greatest  difficulty  in  all  teaching  in  our  graded 
schools  is  the  sinking  of  the  individual  in  the  mass. 
In  written  expression  we  find  a  means  of  reaching  in- 
dividuality through  the  mass.  Why  not,  then,  begin 
at   the  beginning  with  this   mode    of   expression    that 


42  NOTES  OF    TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

the  child  must  use  all  his  life,  and  every  day  of  his 
life? 

Why  not  teach  printing  and  script  together  ?  Because 
it  violates  the  rule  of  perfect  simplicity.  Train  the 
child  to  use  one  set  of  forms,  made  in  one  way,  and  one 
alone.  In  my  experience,  extending  over  eleven  years 
of  supervision  of  primary  schools,  I  have  never  known 
the  failure  of  a  single  class  to  change  from  script  to 
print,  easily  and  readily,  in  one  or  two  days.  What, 
then,  is  the  use  of  print  at  first  ?  What  logical  reason 
can  be  given  for  its  use,  if  the  step  from  script  to  print 
is  so  very  simple  ?  The  writing  of  the  words  by  the 
child  on  blackboard,  slates  and  paper,  furnishes  a  vast 
amount  of  very  interesting  and  profitable  busy  work.  In 
writing  the  first  word  the  child  begins  spelling  in  the 
only  true  way.  In  writing  the  first  sentence  the  child 
makes  the  capitals  and  punctuation  marks,  and  if  he  is 
never  allowed  to  make  a  form  incorrectly,  it  will  be  al- 
most impossible  for  him  ever  to  write  a  sentence  in- 
correctly^ — that  is  beginning  it  with  a  small  letter,  or  not 
using  the  proper  punctuation  at  the  end.  In  writing 
the  words,  the  child  follows  exactly  the  method  of  learn- 
ing the  spoken  language.  Spelling  is  the  precise  co- 
relative  of  pronunciation.  The  child  hears  the  spoken 
word  and  strives  to  reproduce  it  by  his  voice.  The  child 
sees  the  written  word,  and  reproduces  it  with  his  pencil. 
He  gets  the  thought  by  means  of  the  written  word,  and 
gives  it  back  just  as  he  gets  it — he  is  talking  with  his 
pencil.  He  is  ready  to  tell  you  any  time,  orally,  what 
he  is  writing. 

in  the  first  three  years'  work,  talking  with  the  pencil 


READING.— SCRIPT,  43 

may  be  used  as  a  greater  means  of  learning  to  read  than 
all  the  books  of  supplementary  reading.  When  the 
child  writes  the  first  word,  the  unity  of  all  language 
teaching  is  begun.  Getting  thought  and  giving 
thought  by  spoken  and  written  words  should  be  united 
at  the  start,  and  grow  through  all  future  development 
as  from  one  root. 

What  advantages  has  the  blackboard  and  crayon  over 
the  chart  and  printed  book  in  elementary  reading  ? 
First,  the  words  are  created  by  the  hand  of  the  teacher 
before  the  eyes  of  the  children,  as  the  spoken  word  is 
created.  Second,  the  word  is  written  alone  in  large 
letters,  separated  from  all  other  objects  of  interest  ex- 
cept the  object  it  names.  How  different  the  confused 
mass  of  black  specks  upon  the  printed  page.  Third, 
the  attention  of. the  little  group  is  thus  directed  to  one 
object  in  a  very  simple  manner.  Fourth,  words  are 
learned  by  r^^^/^^  acts  of  association.  The  great  fauh 
with  charts  and  primers  is  that  they  do  not  repeat  words 
times  enough  for  the  child  to  learn  them.  On  the  black- 
board, on  the  other  hand,  these  repetitions  can  be  easily 
made.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  first  one 
hundred  words  should  be  learned  thoroughly.  Super- 
ficial work  is  always  bad  work.  From  the  first,  then, 
the  child  should  write  every  word  he  learns  from  the 
blackboard,  and  just  as  soon  as  he  is  able  to  write 
sentences  the  word  should  invariably  be  written  in 
sentences. 

The  child  should  be  trained  to  read  from  his  slate  all 
that  he  writes.  The  reason  why  the  change  is  made  so 
easily  from  script  to  print  used  to  puzzle  me,     I  only 


44  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

knew  that  it  could  be  done,  but  could  not  tell  the 
reason  why.  Script  and  print  are  very  nearly  allied  in 
form.  The  first  print  was  a  crude  reproduction  of  old 
manuscript.  Both,  indeed,  have  changed  since  the 
art  of  printing  was  discovered,  but  the  resemblance 
remains.  The  child,  as  you  know,  has  a  wonderful 
power  of  seeing  resemblances.  Like  comes  to  like  in  his 
mind  because  his  mental  pictures  are  not  filled  out  with 
that  which  produces  the  differences.  This,  to  my  mind, 
is  sufficient  reason  for  the  surprising  ease  with  which 
the  child  changes  from  script  to  print. 


TALK   VI. 

READING. — PHONICS. 

I  PROPOSE  to  speak  to-day  of  the  use  of  the  spoken 
word  in  assisting  acts  of  association  between  the  idea 
and  the  written  word.  It  is  very  often  urged  that  the 
spoken  word  is  sufficient  to  recall  its  appropriate  idea, 
and  thereby  bring  about  an  act  of  association  between 
it  and  the  written  word.  That,  as  the  ideas  are  already 
in  the  mind  of  the  child,  the  spoken  word  alone  is  need- 
ed to  recall  them.  Those  who  hold  to  this  doctrine  fail  to 
understand  the  great  economy  of  mental  action  that  is 
brought  about  by  the  stimulus  of  the  object.  Were  I  to 
teach  you  a  foreign  language,  German,  for  instance,  how 
much  quicker  and  easier  you  would  learn  the  words  if  I 
were  to  present  the  objects  and  speak  or  write  their 
names.  This  is  thoroughly  understood  to-day  by  the 
best  teachers  of  modern  languages.  If  we  adults  can 
learn  a  foreign  language  so  much  easier  by  the  object 
method,  it  can  be  readily  inferred  how  necessary  the  use 
of  objects  is  to  the  little  child.  When  the  old  habit  of 
learning  spoken  words  is  carried  over  into  the  learning 
of  written  words,  that  is,  after  a  hundred  or  more  words 
have  been  learned,  probably  the  spoken  word  will  then 
be  sufficient  to  bring  about  the  required  acts  of  associa- 
tion.    When  a  child  does  not  need  the  stimulus  of  ob- 


46  NOTES   OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

jects,  pictures,  etc.,  then  their  use  should  cease.  Any- 
good  teacher  will  not  fail  to  observe  when  this  time 
comes  to  the  child.  The  spoken  word,  then,  aids  in 
recalling  the  idea,  and  at  the  same  time  names  the 
written  word.  The  spoken  word  is  associated  with  the 
written  word,  so  that  it  recalls  the  written,  and  the 
written  recalls  the  spoken.  Deaf  mutes  learn  the  written 
words  without  the  intermediate  help  of  spoken  words, 
and  it  is  found  that  with  the  use  of  objects  these  unfortu- 
nate beings  learn  written  words  with  as  much,  if  not 
greater,  rapidity  than  the  children  who  have  perfect 
hearing.  Notwithstanding  this  fact,  the  spoken  word 
has  a  use  in  learning  to  read,  but  it  may  be  badly  mis- 
used. For  instance,  when  it  is  associated  with  the 
written  word  alone,  and  the  written  word  is  not  associ- 
ated with  the  idea.  In  this  case,  the  reading  is  not  the 
getting  of  thought,  and,  therefore,  not  real  reading,  but 
simply  mechanical  word  pronouncing  without  the 
slightest  inspiration  from  the  thought.  There  are 
methods  of  teaching  reading,  whose  sole  aim  is  to  train 
children  to  pronounce  words  with  little  or  no  regard  to 
the  thought.  To  the  casual  observer  the  results  seem 
surprising.  To  the  real  teacher  they  are  the  sounding 
of  empty  words.  The  use  of  the  spoken  word,  then,  in 
teaching  reading,  must  be  to  assist  in  acts  of  association. 
To  use  them  for  any  other  purpose  is  a  hindrance  in  learn- 
ing to  read.  The  question,  then,  is.  How  can  spoken 
words  be  used  to  help  associative  acts  ?  The  spoken 
words  have  been  acquired  by  the  child  before  he  enters 
school.  He  knows  how  to  make  every  sound  in  the 
language,  and  to  combine  them  in  pronouncing  all  the 


READING,  -PHONICS,  47 

words  he  knows.  He  has  learned  the  spoken  words  as 
wholes,  and  is  not  conscious  of  the  elementary  parts  of 
a  word,  although  he  can  combine  them  without  the 
slightest  hesitation.  The  spoken  word  consists  of  the 
articulation  of  one  elementary  sound  or  a  succession  of 
elementary  sounds.  An  elementary  sound,  with  the 
exception  of  the  sound  of  //,  requires  for  its  articulation 
a  certain  fixed  position  of  the  vocal  organs.  Change 
the  position  of  the  vocal  organs,  no  matter  how  slightly, 
and  the  sound  must  change.  Between  a  few  combina- 
tions of  two  sounds  the  articulation  continues,  produc- 
ing peculiar  modifications  of  sound  brought  about  by 
various  positions  of  the  vocal  organs  that  they  must 
take  in  changing  from  the  position  required  by  one 
sound  to  that  of  another.  If,  however,  these  glides 
were  made  between  each  and  all  of  any  combinations  of 
the  sounds  of  the  language,  the  intermediate  sounds 
would  be  innumerable.  As  it  is,  forty  sounds  are  all 
that  are  given  in  making  the  spoken  words  of  the 
English  language.  In  changing,  then,  from  the 
position  of  the  vocal  organs  required  to  make  one 
sound,  to  that  of  another,  there  must  be,  except  in 
glides,  an  actual  suspension  of  sound.  In  pronouncing 
ordinarily,  these  pauses  between  sounds  are  too  short 
to  be  perceptible  to  the  ear.  Make  these  pauses  percepti- 
ble, and  we  do,  what  I  think  is  wrongly  termed,  spell 
by  sound.  As  phonic  analysis  has  nothing  whatever  to 
do  with  spelling,  is  oftentimes  a  hindrance  rather 
than  a  help  to  English  spelling,  I  prefer  to  call  the  act  of 
articulating  each  sound  with  a  perceptible  suspension  of 
the  voice  between  two  sounds — slow  pronunciation,  fol- 


48  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

lowing  the  German  term — langsamer  ausprache.  Now,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  in  reality  the  spoken  words 
alone  are  pronounced  slowly,  the  written  words  cannot 
be.  It  is  a  mistake  to  say  that  certain  letters  have  several 
sounds,  several  sounds  are  represented  by  one  letter. 
The  process  by  which  a  word  is  made  to  recall  a  spoken 
word,  or  a  letter  is  made  to  recall  a  sound,  is  exactly 
the  same  as  that  by  which  the  written  word  recalls  the 
idea — viz.,  the  process  of  association.  When  the  first 
word  is  learned,  the  spoken  word  is  associated  with  the 
written  word.  The  spoken  word  and  written  word 
are  learned  as  wholes.  I  have  tried  to  show  that  the 
written  word  is  fixed  in  the  mind  by  writing  it.  That 
when  one  word,  for  instance,  rat  is  taught  and  written, 
the  word  cat  can  be  more  easily  seen  and  more  easily 
copied  ;  for  the  word  cat  contains  two  thirds  of  the 
forms  of  the  previous  word.  In  this  way  we  see  that  as 
the  different  forms  are  impressed  upon  the  mind,  the 
repulsion  of  the  word,  or  the  difificulty  in  grasping  it  is 
overcome,  and  successive  associations  made  easy.  In 
the  same  way  the  spoken  word  may  be  associated  with 
the  written  words,  so  that  the  written  words  will  recall 
the  spoken  with  greater  ease.  As  the  written  words 
become  more  clear  in  the  mind,  the  separate  parts  of 
the  written  word  may  be  associated  with  the  separate 
articulate  sounds,  so  that  the  difficulties  in  the  acts  of 
association  may  become  less  and  less  ;  that  is,  new 
words  may  be  pronounced  and  known  at  sight.  The 
great  danger  is,  that  children  may  be  trained  to  the  skil- 
ful pronunciation  of  words  without  knowing  them.  A 
word  is  only  known  when  it  recalls  its  appropriate  idea. 


READING.— PHONICS.  49 

There  are  two  great  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  success- 
ful teaching  of  the  so-called  phonic  analysis.  One  is  more 
apparent  than  real,  and  that  is,  the  fact  that  different 
sounds  are  represented  by  the  same  letter  in  the  English 
language.  In  a  purely  phonetic  language  (which,  by 
the  way,  does  not  exist),  each  sound  is  represented  in- 
variably by  one  character.  If  the  English  language  were 
phonetic,  it  would  greatly  lighten  the  burden  of  learning 
to  read  and  write.  But  a  careful  examination  of  the 
words  learned  by  a  child  will  show  that  the  difficulties 
are  not  so  great  as  they  are  often  represented  to  be.  If 
we  begin,  for  instance,  with  the  short  sounds,  a  child 
may  learn  at  least  two  hundred  words  that  are  purely 
phonetic  to  him.  I  have  calculated  and  classified  the 
words  in  thirty-nine  pages  of  the  New  Franklin 
Primer,  in  the  whole  of  Monroe's  Charts,  and  in 
the  first  forty  pages  of  my  Supplementary  Reader, 
First  Book.  There  are  456  words  in  all  :  205  of  which 
are  purely  phonetic,  216  are  words  whose  pronunciation 
is  indicated  by  their  form  ;  and  only  the  35  remaining 
may  be  called  entirely  unphonetic.  After  a  child  learns 
this  number  of  words  he  has  formed  a  fixed  habit  of 
learning  new  words,  and  all  active  use  of  primary  meth- 
ods may  cease.  What,  then,  is  the  use  of  burdening 
the  child  with  mangled  and  twisted  print  or  diacritical 
marks  ?  Phonics  may  be  used  as  a  great  help  in  teaching 
primary  reading,  if  the  natural  growth  of  the  child's 
power  is  carefully  followed. 

The  second  difficulty  in  teaching  phonics  is  found  in 
the  apparent  opposition  of  the  word  and  phonic 
method.  The  word  must  be  learned  as  a  whole,  and  any 


so  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING, 

early  attempt  at  word  analysis  simply  retards  the 
teaching.  The  struggle  to  analyze  a  new  word,  or  to 
build  it  up  from  parts,  as  I  have  already  explained, 
absorbs  the  attention  and  prevents  the  act  of  associa- 
tion. These  two  methods,  that  seem  to  be  in  direct  op- 
position to  each  other,  may  be  entirely  reconciled  by 
closely  following  well-known  mental  laws.  The  child, 
as  I  have  said,  knows  how  to  make  all  the  sounds  in  the 
language  in  their  word  combinations.  He  is  not  con- 
scious of  a  single  separate  element.  Obviously,  the 
first  step  to  be  taken  is,  to  bring  these  elements  slowly 
to  his  consciousness.  This  may  be  done  by  training 
the  child  to  pronounce  words  slowly  (spell  by  sound). 
I  have  found  by  repeated  experiments  that  the  little 
child  will  understand  me  when  I  pronounce  words 
slowly  in  a  natural  manner,  nearly  as  well  as  when  I 
pronounce  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  child  may  be 
trained  by  imitation  to  pronounce  slowly  with  great 
readiness  and  skill.  This  should  be  carefully  done  be- 
fore any  direct  association  is  made  between  articulate 
sounds  and  the  word  that  represents  them. 

One  of  the  greatest  activities  of  the  mind  is  the 
coming  together  of  like  to  like.  It  may  be  called  the 
law  of  analogies.  It  begins,  as  all  good  things  do,  in 
perfect  unconsciousness  on  the  part  of  the  child. 
When  a  child  says,  **  I  seed,**  for  I  saw,  and  **  I 
goed,"  for  I  went,  the  child  is  unconsciously  fol- 
lowing this  law  of  analogies.  The  same  law  is 
in  operation  when  the  child  spells  all  words  pho- 
netically, without  regard  to  the  absurdities  of  Eng- 
lish   spelling.      Using    phonics,  in    teaching    reading, 


RE  A  DING,  —PHONICS,  5 1 

in  the  proper  way,  simply  intensifies  this  law.  If  the 
word  method  were  used,  pure  and  simple,  the  child's 
unconscious  mental  activity  would  seek  out  and  use  the 
analogies  of  the  language,  in  associating  new  written 
words  with  the  same  sounds  he  has  learned  to  associate 
with  them.  When  we  teach  words  in  phonic  order,  as, 
for  example,  rat,  fat,  cat,  mat,  sat,  pat,  this  law  of 
like  coming  to  like  in  the  mind  is  made  more  effective. 
But  when  at  the  proper  time  the  articulate  sounds  are 
consciously  associated  with  the  letters  that  represent 
them,  we  use  this  mental  activity  in  the  most  economical 
way.  Great  care,  however,  should  be  taken  not  to  force 
the  growth  of  this  mental  action  so  as  to  conflict  with 
the  other  and  more  important  law  of  learning  words  as 
wholes.  These  whole  words  cannot  be  analyzed  until 
they  are  clear  mental  objects.  The  process,  then,  of 
using  phonics  may  be  given  thus  :  First,  train  the  child 
to  recognize  words  when  pronounced  slowly.  This  may 
be  easily  done,  if  the  teacher  pronounces  slowly  in  easy, 
natural  tones.  The  greatest  obstacle  that  I  have  found 
in  phonics  is  the  inability  of  teachers  to  do  this. 
Second,  train  the  child  to  pronounce  slowly  by  imitat- 
ing the  teacher's  voice.  All  this  should  be  done,  as  I 
have  said,  before  any  direct  association  of  articulate 
sounds  is  made  with  written  words.  Third,  after  a  few 
words  are  taught,  let  the  teacher  in  writing  words  give 
each  articulate  sound  as  she  makes  the  character  that 
represents  it.  Do  not  require  the  children  to  imitate 
-the  teacher  until  they  do  so  of  their  own  accord. 
Fourth,  have  the  children  begin  to  pronounce  slowly, 
without  even  a  suggestion  from  the  teacher,  the  words 


52  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

which  she  writes.  Phonics  may  be  thereafter  used  with 
great  effect  in  teaching  reading.  Thus,  you  will 
observe,  that  by  this  process  the  spoken  word  retains  its 
unity  as  long  as  it  is  necessary,  and  the  way  is  carefully 
prepared  for  the  conscious  analysis  of  words  when  the 
proper  time  comes.  This  will  be  indicated  by  the 
child's  own  spontaneous  action. 

All  new  words,  then,  that  come  within  the  child's  ac- 
quired analogies  of  sound  may  be  readily  associated 
with  their  appropriate  idea  with  little  or  no  aid  from 
the  teacher.  Give  the  child  the  power  to  help  himself 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  at  the  same  time  please  remem- 
ber not  to  violate  any  known  laws  of  his  mental 
growth. 


TALK  VII. 

READING. — APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES. 

In  this  discussion  of  the  art  of  teaching  reading,  I 
have  tried  to  explain  the  principles  that  underlie  the  so- 
called  object,  word,  sentence,  script  and  phonic  methods. 
Each  of  these  methods  has  been  discovered  by  teachers 
in  the  past,  and  generally  each  has  been  applied  by 
different  teachers  as  the  only  true  method.  Probably 
the  exact  date  of  the  discovery  of  each  method  cannot 
be  given,  but  the  youngest  of  these,  the  script  method, 
is  nearly  one  hundred  years  old  ;  and  the  oldest,  the 
phonic,  is  described  by  Valentine  Ickelsamer,  a  con- 
temporary of  Luther's,  in  a  book  written  in  1534.  No 
one  would  claim  the  title  of  inventor  of  a  new  method, 
if  they  had  studied  the  history  of  the  art  of  teaching  read- 
ing. Each  one  of  these  methods  was  discovered  in  the  ac- 
tion of  some  mental  law.  So  far  as  they  go,  and  used  in 
their  own  proper  place  and  proportion,  they  are  all  nat- 
ural methods.  The  difficulty  is  in  using  one  method  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  others.  It  is  like  using  one  power  of 
the  mind  and  leaving  four  others  inactive.  The  fact  is, 
that  the  object,  word,  sentence,  script,  and  phonic 
methods  form  one  true  method  in  teaching  reading. 
Each  should  be  used  in  its  own  time,  place  and  pro- 
portion, in  such  a  manner  as  to  arouse  and  strengthen 


54  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

five  faculties  of  the  mind  instead  of  one.  This  recon- 
ciliation of  most  methods  that  have  been  discovered  in 
the  past,  is  true  not  only  of  teaching  reading,  but  every- 
thing else.  We  might  say  that  everything  now  done 
in  the  school-room,  in  the  way  of  teaching,  is  right,  in  its 
place  ;  but  the  trouble  is  that  things  get  frightfully 
misplaced.  Precision,  for  instance,  may  take  the  place, 
and  crush  the  evolution  of  thought,  and  thought  growth 
may  override  precision.  It  seems  to  me,  that  the  great 
duty  of  the  teachers  of  this  age  is,  first,  to  know  all  the 
great  things  that  have  been  discovered  by  the  teachers 
and  thinkers  of  the  past,  and  to  reconcile  them  into 
a  science  of  teaching.  I  shall  now  endeavor  to  apply 
in  practice  what  I  have  given  you  in  theory  ;  in  which 
I  trust  you  will  see  that  all  the  methods  I  have  given 
can  and  should  be  used  as  one. 

The  preparatory  exercises  that  should  always  precede 
the  teaching  of  primary  reading,  I  will  give  when  I  dis- 
cuss the  teaching  of  language.  We  will  suppose  that 
the  child  has  had  these  preparatory  exercises,  and  is 
ready  to  be  taught  reading.  The  first  question  to  be 
settled  is.  What  words  shall  be  taught  ?  (Learning  to 
read,  you  will  remember,  is  learning  a  vocabulary  of 
written  and  printed  words.)  The  first  general  answer 
to  this  question  is.  The  oral  words  the  child  has  already 
gained.  The  idea  must  always  be  acquired  before 
the  word  can  be.  All  through  the  education  of  the 
child  this  rule  should  be  carefully  followed.  Education 
may  be  said  to  consist,  first,  of  enlarging  the  range  of 
ideas  ;  second,  in  relating  these  ideas  in  various  ways. 

The    value  of  a  word    depends    wholly    upon    the 


READING.— APPLICA  TION  OF  PRINCIPLES.         55 

value  of  the  idea  it  recalls.  It  is  of  great  importance 
to  select  carefully  the  vocabulary  to  be  taught  the  child 
during  the  first  year  ;  and  it  is  of  greater  importance 
that  the  selected  vocabulary  should  be  slowly  and 
thoroughly  taught.  That  is,  that  repetitions  of  the 
word  should  entirely  suffice  to  put  the  word  within  the 
automatic  use  of  the  child. 

Much  time  and  very  good  teaching  is  wasted  by  not 
following  the  step-by-step  rule,  by  which  everything 
done  is  thoroughly  done.  It  is  far  more  important 
to  teach  20  words  well  than  to  try  to  teach  200 
imperfectly.  The  first  vocabulary  selected  should  con- 
tain about  200  words,  to  be  taught  in  script  on  the 
blackboard.  In  selecting  this  list  of  words  three  things 
should  be  taken  into  account.  First,  the  favorite 
words  of  the  child.  Those  words  which  would  naturally 
arouse  most  interest  in  the  child  should  be  taught  first. 
Second,  the  words  should  be  arranged  in  phonic  order 
—  generally  the  short  sounds  are  taken  first.  With 
these  words,  all  the  unphonetic  words,  like  where,  there, 
etc.,  that  serve  to  introduce  the  idioms  used  by  the  little 
child.  Teaching  words  in  the  phonic  order,  that  is,  the 
order  of  vowel  sounds,  serves,  as  I  have  previously  ex- 
plained, to  intensify  the  law  of  analogies  on  which  the 
phonic  method  is  founded.  I  may  say  here,  that  the 
phonic  order  should  not  be  followed  at  the  expense  of 
the  interest  of  the  child.  Every  word  and  sentence 
should  bring  up  a  bright  and  interesting  picture.  One 
should  not  hesitate  to  introduce  any  new  word  for  this 
purpose.  The  first  words  taught  should  be  names  of 
common  objects.     Now  it  is  true  that  the  objects  most 


56  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

common  to  the  child  have  names  in  which  only  short 
vowel  sounds  occur,  such  as  fatty  cap^  hat^  cat,  mat,  rat, 
bat,  bag,  rag,  flag,  hen,  egg,  nest,  bell,  fish,  dish,  pig,  rabbit, 
ship,  dog,  doll,  top,  fox,  box,  cup,  tub,  mug,  jug,  ?tut.  The 
second  thing  to  be  observed  in  selecting  the  list  is,  the 
words  used  in  the  first  book  or  books  that  the  child  will 
read. 

No  First  Reader  extant  furnishes  repetition  enough  for 
the  thorough  learning  of  the  words.  It  is  better  to 
select  the  vocabulary  from  the  first  parts  of  three  or 
four  different  readers.  If  this  is  done  when  the  child 
begins  the  print  (after  150  or  200  words  have  been 
taught  in  script),  he  can  read  with  great  ease  and  de- 
light 150  or  200  pages  in  print.  We  will  suppose,  then, 
that  the  vocabulary  has  been  carefully  selected  ;  that 
the  preparatory  oral  work  has  been  done  ;  that  the 
teacher  has  selected  fifteen  or  twenty  objects,  or  models 
of  objects,  to  aid  in  teaching  the  first  few  words.  The 
pupils  have  been  carefully  divided  off  in  groups  of  five 
or  six,  according  to  their  mental  strength.  The  work 
would  naturally  begin  with  their  brightest  group. 
(Never  tell  them  that  they  are  bright,  however.)  The 
teacher  is  at  the  board,  surrounded  by  a  little  group  of 
children,  who  have  been  made  to  feel  quite  at  home  in 
the  school-room,  and  who  are  ready  and  eager  for 
any  new  step,  because  everything  they  have  done  in 
the  school-room  has  given  them  pleasure.  They 
have  unbounded  faith  in  the  power  of  the  teacher  to 
lead  them  into  green  pastures  filled  with  the  most  de- 
lightful shrubs  and  flowers.  The  teacher  holds  up  an 
object  as  she  has  often  done  before  ;  but  now,  instead  of 


READING.— APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES.         57 

giving  its  name  orally,  she  says,  **  Hear  the  chalk 
talk,"  and  slowly  writes  the  word.  Let  me  say  here,  that 
the  articles  a,  ^;2,  and  the,  should  always  be  written  with 
the  words,  and  the  article  and  word  should  be  pronounced 
as  one  word.  Write  the  name  of  the  object  several  times. 
Let  the  teacher  point  to  the  word,  having  put  the  object 
down,  and  say  to  the  child,  **  Bring  me  a — "  point- 
ing at  the  same  time  to  the  word.  Let  the  teacher  hold 
up  the  object  and  ask,  **  What  does  the  chalk  say  this 
is?"  having  the  pupil  point  to  the  word.  These  exer- 
cises should  not  occupy  more  than  five  minutes.  The 
next  lesson  shows  a  new  object,  and  write  its  name  as 
before.  Let  the  child  take  the  two  objects,  one  in  each 
hand.  Let  the  teacher  write  the  name,  and  ask  him  to 
hold  up  the  objects,  first  one,  and  then  the  other,  as  the 
names  are  written.  This  plan  may  be  safely  followed 
till  ten  or  fifteen  words  are  taught.  In  review  of 
words,  all  the  names  may  be  written  ;  let  the  teacher 
point  to  the  different  names  and  have  the  pupils  bring 
the  objects  ;  then  the  teacher  holds  up  the  objects,  and 
lets  the  pupils  point  to  the  names  ;  and  last,  have  the 
pupils  point  and  give  the  names  without  the  objects. 

The  first  sentence  may  now  be  taught.  Let  the  child 
take,  for  instance,  a  fan  in  his  hand,  and  be  led  to  say 
**  This  is  a  fan."  The  teacher  writes  the  sentence  on 
the  board,  and  says,  "  The  chalk  has  said  what  you  said, 
what  did  the  chalk  say  ?"  The  child,  holding  the  fan, 
says,  "  This  is  a  fan."  Write  in  place  of  fan  succes- 
sively, all  the  words  that  have  been  taught.  Have 
pupils  take  the  objects  and  read  the  sentences.  Change 
this  to  that ;  place  the  objects  at  a  little  distance  from  the 


58  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING, 

pupils,  and  repeat  all  the  sentences  as  before.  Change 
that  to  herCy  and  repeat  all  the  sentences,  having  the 
child  hold  the  appropriate  object  as  he  reads  each 
sentence.  Change  here  to  ihere^  and  repeat  as  before. 
Change  the  singulars  to  plurals,  and  change  the  sen- 
tences accordingly,  using  these  and  those^  here  and 
there.  Write  questions  beginning  with  inhere,  as, 
**  Where  is  the  fan  ?"  and  let  pupils  answer  orally  by 
holding  up  the  object,  as  "  Here  is  the  fan."  Put  the 
objects  on  the  table,  and  ask  the  question  by  writing  it 
on  the  board — "  Where  is  the  fan  ?"  After  this  answer, 
write  the  answers  and  have  pupils  read  them.  When 
a  dozen  sentences  have  been  written,  have  the  pupils 
read  the  whole  successively.  Introduce  new  words 
as  before  with  objects.  Qualities  of  objects  may  be 
brought  in  next  ;  as  **  The  red  box  ;"  ''  The  white  fan  ;" 
**  The  fat  rat  ;"  and  reviews  made  by  the  schedule 
just  given — this,  that,  these,  those,  -etc.  Place  objects  in 
different  positions,  as  the  fan  in  the  hat,  the  cap  in  the 
box,  and  write  sentences,  describing  them.  Little  ex- 
clamatory sentences  may  here  be  introduced  with  good 
effect,  as  *' Oh,  what  a  pretty  fan!"  **  See  the  little 
doll!'*  '*Oh,  there  is  the  cat!"  *'The  cat  is  sitting 
up  !"  *' Isn't  she  funny  ?"  Directions  might  be  written 
on  the  board  which  the  pupil  reads  silently,  and  com- 
plies with;  such  as  **  Come  to  me."  "Sit  down." 
**  Stand  up."  "Shake  hands."  **Run."  "Jump." 
**Skip."  "'Hop."  "Laugh."  "Cry,"  etc. 

The  next  step  may  be  the  writing  of  little  connected 
stories  on  the  blackboard.  A  very  good  way  to  write 
stories,  or  sentences  connected  in    thought,   is  for  the 


READING,- APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES.         59 

teacher  to  sketch  a  picture  on  the  board.  Let  her  make 
a  plan  for  a  picture  containing  quite  a  number  of  ob- 
jects. Let  her  sketch  one  object  before  the  little  group, 
talk,  and  then  write  sentences  about  it,  and  arouse  cu- 
riosity as  to  what  the  picture  is  to  be.  Thus,  one  picture 
may  serve  for  several  lessons.  A  large  wall  picture 
may  be  used  in  the  same  way.  In  all  object  lessons, 
lessons  on  plants,  animals,  and  color,  the  words  and 
sentences  should  be  written  upon  the  board. 


TALK    VIII. 

READING. — APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES,   CONTINUED. 

Some  general  directions  to  be  followed  in  teaching 
these  first  lessons  may  be  of  service.  I  will  give  them 
here. 

1.  Carefully  introduce  each  word  which  of  itself 
recalls  an  idea,  by  first  presenting  the  object,  sketch  or 
representation  of  the  object,  or  by  bringing  the  picture 
of  it  vividly  to  the  child's  mind  by  means  of  conversation 
or  questioning. 

2.  All  words  that  do  not  recall  ideas  except  in  their 
relations,  should  be  taught  in  phrases  or  sentences. 

3.  Try  to  make  every  thought  and  its  expression  real 
to  the  child,  and  when  it  can  be  done,  suit  the  action  to 
the  word. 

4.  Be  sure  the  child  has  got  the  thought  before  you 
allow  him  to  make  an  attempt  to  give  it. 

5.  Have  the  child  get  the  thought  by  means  of  the 
written  words,  and  not  by  hearing  the  sentence  read. 

6.  Do  not  teach  emphasis,  inflection  and  pauses  by 
imitation.  Thought  will  control  expression.  If  the 
thought  is  in  the  child's  mind  in  its  fullest  intensity, 
the  expression  will  be  appropriate. 

7.  Train  children  to  read  in  pleasant,  conversational 
tones,  free  from  harshness,  monotony,  or  artificiality. 


APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES,   CONTINUED.       6i 

8.  Never  allow  the  children  to  read  carelessly,  or  to 
guess  at  the  words. 

9.  To  arouse  a  desire  for  new  words,  and  a  love  for 
the  reading  lesson,  observe  the  following  rules  : 

1.  Teach  the  words  very  slowly  at  first. 

2.  Put  the  words  taught  into  many  different 
sentences. 

3.  Write  short  sentences,  and  then  make  very  slight 
changes  in  them — generally  of  a  single  word — in  order 
that  the  children  may  be  successful  every  time  they  try 
to  read  a  sentence. 

4.  Wait  patiently  until  they  grasp  the  thought,  and 
if  they  are  dull  be  very  patient. 

5.  Have  always  a  bright  picture  behind  each  word  or 
sentence,  which  the  child  shall  see  vividly  with  his 
mind's  eye. 

The  children  should  be  trained  to  write  on  their  slates 
the  first  words  they  learned  from,  the  blackboard. 
Several  devices  may  be  used  for  this.  First,  the  chil- 
dren, following  the  teacher,  may  write  the  word  in  the 
air.  Second,  they  may  trace  the  word.  Third,  they  may 
write  the  word  line  by  line  as  the  teacher  writes  it. 
(The  teacher,  by  the  way,  should  be  an  excellent 
penman.)  Fourth,  the  children  may  write  the  word 
without  any  help  from  the  teacher,  copying  it  from  a 
large  and  well-nigh  perfect  copy  on  the  blackboard. 
The  slates  should  be  ruled.  The  same  word  may  be 
copied  several  times.  No  matter  how  badly  the  child 
writes  the  first  word,  praise  him  if  he  has  tried,  and  do 
not  discourage  him  if  he  has  not  tried.  Imbue  him 
with  your  own  faith    that  he  can   do    it.     When  the 


62  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

sentence  is  written,  have  him  write  the  sentences  in  the 
order  I  have  given  for  the  teaching  of  sentences.  Be 
sure  that  he  always  begins  the  sentence  with  a  capital, 
and  uses  the  correct  punctuation  mark  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence.  Have  the  pupils  read  everything  they  write. 
Use  short  sentences  at  first.  Never  allow  a  child  to 
read  a  sentence  till  he  has  the  thought  in  his  mind,  and 
never  allow  him  to  express  the  thought  in  any  other 
way  than  by  talking.  If  he  does  not  talk  well  train 
him  to  do  so,  orally,  by  object  lessons.  Introduce  all 
new  idioms  in  the  same  way.  Repeat  the  words  until 
you  are  sure  they  are  thoroughly  known. 

The  use  of  the  phonic  method  may  begin  the  first  day 
the  child  comes  to  school,  with  the  phonic  analysis  of 
the  spoken  word,  which  I  prefer  to  call  slow  pronuncia- 
tion. The  purpose  of  this  exercise  is  to  bring  distinctly 
to  the  child's  consciousness  the  separate  sounds  of 
which  the  spoken  word  consists,  and  to  give  him  such 
practice  as  will  enable  him  to  utter  all  the  elementary 
sounds  of  the  language  purely  and  easily.  But  no 
attempt  should  be  made  at  this  time  to  associate  these 
elementary  sounds  with  the  letters  that  stand  for  them. 
That  comes  later.  The  child  should  first  become  ac- 
customed to  hear  the  separate  sounds  and  to  utter  them  ; 
and  the  exercises  for  this  purpose  should  be  among  the 
first  given  to  the  child,  and  be  carried  on  side  by  side 
with  the  oral  language  work  from  day  to  day.  I  will 
describe  in  detail  the  first  steps  of  this  work.  When  a 
few  exercises  in  the  repetition  of  sentences  have  been 
given,  the  teacher  may,  without  changing  her  tone  of 
voice,  pronounce  slowly  (spell   by    sound)  one  of   the 


APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES,   CONTINUED,       d^y 

words  in  a  given  sentence.  For  instance,  the  teacher, 
pointing  at  the  clock,  says,  "  There  is  a  c-l-o-ck."  The 
pupils  will  repeat  the  sentence  as  before,  without  hesi- 
tation. Or  the  teacher  may  say  to  the  children,  **  Touch 
what  I  name  :  n-o-s-e,  m-ou-th,  f-a-ce,  d-e-s-k,"  and  the 
pupils  will  perform  the  acts  ^iVOTCi^tly  if  the  teacher  does 
not  change  her  tone.  Then  pronounce  single  words  slowly, 
and  ask  pupils  to  tell  what  you  say.  Pronounce  whole 
sentences  slowly,  and  ask  the  pupils  to  repeat  them  in 
the  ordinary  way.  Direct  pupils  to  *'  s-t-a-n-d  u-p  ; 
s-i-t  d-ow-n,  etc.  As  soon  as  they  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  hearing  the  slow  pronunciation  say  single 
words  slowly  and  let  them  imitate.  (One  sound  may  be 
given  at  a  time,  the  pupils  repeating — as,  **  m,"  *'  ^,*' 
^'ou,*'  ''  ou;'  *'th,"  ''  thr)  It  is  not  well  to  let  the 
pupils  pronounce  a  word  slowly  and  immediately  pro- 
nounce it  in  the  ordinary  way,  as  in  a  spelling  exercise, 
because  they  should  have  the  feeling  that  when  they 
have  once  uttered  the  sounds, they  have  pronounced  the 
word.  After  this,  pronounce  words  in  the  ordinary 
way,  and  ask  the  pupils  to  pronounce  the  same  words 
slowly.  Let  pupils  pronounce  slowly  any  words  that 
they  may  think  of.  Those  children  who  have  defects  in 
articulation  should  have  special  drill.  To  assist  them  in 
uttering  the  sounds  correctly,  the  right  position  of  the 
vocal  organs  should  be  shown.  Words  mispronounced 
should  be  corrected  by  imitating  the  teacher,  and  by 
repetition  until  the  correct  habit  is  formed.  The 
preliminary  exercises,  both  in  oral  language  and  in 
phonics,  should  be  carefully  graded,  beginning  with 
those  which  are  very  simple.     There  should  be  frequent 


64  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

reviews,  and  the  exercises  should  be  short — five  minutes 
at  first,  and  never  at  any  time  more  than  ten  minutes. 
Practice  on  the  sound  chart  is  of  great  service.  Begin 
by  articulating  each  sound  separately,  and  asking  the 
pupils  to  imitate  you.  Each  sound  may  be  repeated 
once  or  twice  or  three  times,  both  slowly  and  in  quick 
succession,  the  pupils  imitating.  In  this  exercise  the 
sounds  may  be  given  in  the  order  indicated  in  the  chart 
which  is  given  below,  but  this  chart  should  not  be 
written  on  the  board  at  first,  not  until  it  is  needed  for 
the  purpose  of  associating  the  sounds  with  the  letters  in 
teaching  reading. 

SOUND    CHART. 

Consonants. 


^^  ^  ^^ 


A 


-^ 


'^^/^  "14/- 


.  applica  tion  of  principles,  continued,     65 

Vowels, 
short  sounds, 

^  ^  i^      .    -O-  ^  ^  (as  in  pull) 

NAME    SOUNDS, 

LONG    SOUNDS, 

1^  2^^  €^0-  -Oi-  'O'l^ 


TALK  IX. 

READING. — APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES,  CONCLUDED. 

When  150  words  or  more  have  been  taught,  write 
a  nice  lesson  on  the  blackboard  in  script,  and  have 
the  pupils  read  it  ;  then,  after  the  day's  session, 
erase  the  script  and  print  the  same  lesson  in  the  same 
place.  Call  up  the  pupils  the  next  morning,  and  have 
them  read  the  lesson.  Do  this  two  or  three  times,  and 
the  pupils  are  ready  for  the  chart  or  a  book.  It  is  better 
to  take  the  chart  first.  In  my  experience  of  several 
years  in  changing  many  classes  from  script  to  print,  this 
simple  process  has  sufficed.  One  rule  should  be  strictly 
followed.  Never  point  out  or  allude  in  any  way  to  the 
difficulty  in  learning  print.  You  should  have,  be- 
sides a  good  chart  like  Monroe's  or  Appleton's,  at  least 
five  or  six  sets  of  First  Readers.  They  are  very  cheap,  and 
you  can  induce  your  committee  to  buy  them,  providing 
you  do  good  work.  Read  one  book  until  the  sentences  be- 
come difficult,  and  then  take  another.  (Never  let  the 
children  point  to  words  with  their  fingers,  and  train 
them  from  the  first  to  find  their  places  for  themselves.) 
Two  years  at  least  should  be  spent  with  the  average 
child  in  learning  to  read  First  Reader  reading,  and  the 
third  year  may  be  profitably  spent  in  commanding 
Second  Reader  reading.     There  is  immense  economy  in 


APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES,  CONCLUDED.      67 

going  very  slowly.  If  the  primary  work  is  thoroughly 
done,  there  will  be  little  or  no  need  of  teaching  reading 
as  reading  after  the  fourth  year. 


BAD   HABITS. 

I  am  quite  sure  that  many  of  you  have  asked  the  ques- 
tion, to  yourselves  at  least,  while  I  have  been  explain- 
ing the  principles  and  methods  of  teaching  primary 
reading  as  I  understand  them,  What  shall  we  do  with 
children  whose  teaching  has  been  all  wrong  from  the 
beginning  ?  Who  have  been  taught  by  the  alphabet, 
phonic,  phonetic,  or  word  methods  without  the  life- 
giving  principle  of  the  thought  ?  Who  struggle  with 
each  particular  word  in  a  painful  way,  and  drawl  out 
the  sentences  as  if  there  were  no  beautiful  pictures  behind 
them  ?  Who  have  been  led  through  a  dreary  waste  of 
empty  words  in  a  harsh,  unnatural  manner  ?  What  shall 
we  do  with  these  children  ?  you  ask.  It  is  a  very 
difficult  question  to  answer,  for  two  or  three  weeks' 
wrong  teaching  will  leave  their  scars  in  the  child's 
mind  forever  ;  crippling  every  action,  and  obstructing 
every  step.  The  elocutionists,  by  scores,  reap  a  rich 
harvest  from  the  bad  teaching  in  primary  schools.  The 
trouble  with  the  voices  generally  is,  that  the  natural, 
easy,  pleasant  tones  of  the  child  are  changed  to  harsh, 
unnatural  utterance.  Something  may  be  done  indeed 
for  these  unfortunate  victims.  First,  I  would  say,  no 
matter  what  grade  the  children  may  be  in,  put  them 
into  the  easiest  possible  reading,  even  if  you  have  to 
begin  with  the  First  Reader.    Select  the  most  interesting 


68  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

and  the  most  dramatic  pieces.  Dialogues,  brisk,  sharp 
dialogues  are  very  good.  Drop  oral  reading  for  a 
time,  and  lead  the  children  to  see  vividly  the  picture 
that  lies  behind  the  words.  Have  them  tell  you  in  their 
own  language  what  they  see  in  the  word-pictures. 
When  they  are  very  much  interested,  and  are  talking 
with  great  freedom,  ask  one  to  read  a  short  sentence. 
The  pupils  will  feel  the  shock  (if  the  teaching  be  skil- 
fully done)  from  cheerful,  interesting  conversational 
tones,  to  dull,  prosy  word-pronouncing.  Thus  you  can 
slowly  lead  them  to  form  new  ideals  in  reading.  Your 
whole  mind  as  a  teacher  should  be  concentrated  on  the 
one  great  thing  of  leading  your  pupils  to  get  the 
thought,  or  seeing  mentally  the  picture.  If  you  hold 
steadily  to  this  one  purpose,  you  may  be  able  to  lead 
them  to  read  naturally.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  question 
them  sharply  upon  the  sentences  they  are  reading.  Take 
a  paragraph  like  this,  for  instance  :  "  Five  little  peas  in 
a  pod  ;  they  were  green  and  the  pod  was  green,  so 
they  thought  all  the  world  was  green,  and  that  was  as 
it  should  be."  And  then  question,  thus  :  **  Where  were 
the  peas?"  "How  many  peas  were  there?"  "What 
kind  of  peas  were  they  ?"  "  What  color  were  the  peas  ?" 
"What  color  was  the  pod  ?"  "Because  they  were 
green,  what  did  they  think?''  The  pupils  can  answer 
correctly,  only  by  the  closest  attention  to  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  paragraph.  Ask  them  occasionally 
to  read  a  whole  sentence.  In  this  way  children  may  be 
led  out  of  the  wilderness.  Remember,  also,  to  give 
pupils  a  great  deal  of  interesting  reading  adapted  to 
their  vocabulary  and  thought. 


APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES,    CONCLUDED.       69 
SUGGESTIONS. 

Two  kinds  of  reading  exercises,  at  least,  should  be 
given  to  the  pupils.  First,  exercises  in  which  every  new 
word  is  carefully  taught  upon  the  blackboard,  before  the 
lesson  in  the  book  is  read.  Second,  tests  in  which  pupils 
try  to  read  new  selections  without  preparation.  These 
tests  should  be  frequently  given — once  a  week  at  least. 
The  same  general  rules  should  be  observed  in  teaching 
reading  in  books.  Do  not  let  the  child  read  a  sentence 
aloud  until  he  knows  its  words  and  its  meaning.  If  the 
sentence  is  long  he  should  be  allowed  to  express  the 
thought  by  phrases  or  clauses.  As  a  rule,  do  not  let 
the  pupils  in  a  class  know  who  will  be  called  upon  to  read 
next.  Do  not  give  the  thought  to  the  pupils  orally, 
but  let  them  get  it  for  themselves.  Do  not  require 
them  to  read  the  same  lesson  over  and  over  again,  lest 
they  lose  their  interest  in  it.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
the  pupils  close  their  books  and  tell  in  their  own  words 
what  they  have  read.  In  the  second  year,  when 
composition  has  been  well  begun,  require  pupils  to 
write  one  thing  they  remember  of  what  they  have  read  ; 
then  two  things ;  three  things  ;  and  finally  let  them 
write  the  whole  story  as  they  remember  it.  Ask  them 
to  read  orally  the  sentences,  descriptions,  and  stories 
they  write.  A  large  number  of  sentences,  plainly  written 
on  slips  of  paper,  or  cardboard,  may  be  successfully 
used.  Give  each  pupil  a  slip.  If  one  pupil  reads  a 
sentence  correctly,  give  him  another  slip  to  read.  For 
busy  work,  give  pupils  slips  to  copy,  and  let  them  read 
what  they  have  copied.     Let  pupils  take  a  number  of 


70  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON  TEACHING.  ^ 

slips  and  arrange  them  for  busy  work,  into  a  little 
story.  Then  let  them  read  the  story  from  the  slips,  or 
read  it  after  copying  it  upon  their  slates.  Single  words, 
written  or  printed  upon  cardboard,  may  be  put  together 
into  sentences  and  read.  When  the  teacher  finds,  by 
false  emphasis  or  wrong  inflection,  that  the  thought  has 
not  been  correctly  apprehended  by  the  reader,  questions 
may  be  used  with  good  effect.  By  this  means  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  will  be  turned  directly  upon  the 
thought,  and  their  answers  will  be  given  with  natural 
tones  and  expression,  as  in  talking.  Gradually  they  may 
be  led  to  utter  the  whole  sentence  with  expression. 

Reading  and  composition  should  be  taught  together, 
the  one  assisting  the  other  at  every  step.  Let  pupils 
read  what  they  write  from  a  copy,  from  dictation,  and 
in  composition.  If  pupils  are  trained,  as  they  may  be, 
to  express  thought  correctly  and  easily  in  writing,  their 
compositions  may  be  made  as  profitable  as  supplemen- 
tary books  in  teaching  reading.  Let  pupils  read  one 
another's  compositions.  In  testing  the  script  work,  the 
list  of  words  taught  may  be  rapidly  written  in  sentences 
and  short  stories.  If  the  pupils  can  readily  read  these, 
the  teacher  may  feel  confident  that  the  words  have  been 
well  taught.  In  book-reading  the  tests  should  be  from 
books  that  pupils  have  never  read.  Before  reading  a 
paragraph  aloud,  a  short  time  should  be  given  the  class 
to  read  it  silently.  Finally  the  standard  of  excellence 
is  indicated  by  these  two  questions.  First,  has  the 
reader  correctly  apprehended  the  thought  ?  Second,  has 
he  used  correct  pronunciation,  distinct  articulation,  and 
natural  tones  ? 


TALK    X. 

SPELLING. 

Reading  and  spelling  should  come  first  in  the  child's 
school-life,  so  as  to  finish  them,  and  get  them  out  of  the 
way.  If  the  preparation  is  thorough,  and  the  teacher 
skilful,  not  a  great  amount  of  time  need  be  given  to 
either.  To  continue  the  teaching  of  spelling,  as  is  usu- 
ally done,  through  all  the  years  of  a  common-school 
course  is  a  wasteful  expenditure  of  time  and  strength. 
What  is  spelling  ?  Spelling  is  making  the  forms  of  words 
correctly,  it  is  writing  correctly,  and  should  include 
capitals  and  punctuation.  Oral  spelling  is  not  spelling 
per  se,  it  is  a  description  of  the  word.  Spelling  is  the 
co-relative  of  pronunciation.  I  hear  a  word  pronounced 
over  and  over  till  I  can  give  it  back.  I  see  a  word  spelled 
over  and  over  till  I  can  give  it  back.  The  only  difference 
is,  that  spelling  is  the  written  or  printed  form,  and 
pronunciation  is  the  spoken.  We  learn  to  do  a  thing 
by  doing  it  ;  by  doing  it  repeatedly  ;  by  doing  it  right 
every  time  ;  by  doing  it  until  it  is  well  done.  It  follows, 
then,  that  we  learn  to  make  a  word  by  making  it  ;  to 
make  it  accurately  by  making  it  accurately  ;  to  make  it 
easily  by  making  it  many  times.  In  order  to  know  how 
a  word  looks  we  must  see  it,  and  the  best  means  of 
seeing   a   form    is   to    draw  it  ;  therefore   drawing   (or 


72  NOTES  OF   TALK'S   ON    TEACHING. 

copying)  words  is  the  best  means  of  receiving  distinct 
mental  impressions  of  written  words.  If  I  spell  a  word 
orally,  the  names  of  the  letters  recall  their  forms  and 
you  combine  them  in  your  imagination.  It  is  just  as 
absurd  to  try  to  learn  drawing  by  oral  description,  as  it 
is  to  try  to  learn  how  to  spell  a  word  from  hearing  it 
spelled  orally.  The  proper  function  of  oral  spelling  is 
to  describe  word  forms  already  in  the  mind  ;  not  to 
bring  them  into  the  mind  by  acts  of  imagination.  The 
most  natural  and  economical  way  of  learning  to  spell, 
is  to  write  words  until  we  can  write  them  automatically. 
What  is  the  purpose  of  spelling  ?  During  the  first  year 
it  is  entirely  to  prepare  for  composition  or  "talking 
with  the  pencil."  Indeed,  all  spelling  is  for  the  sake 
of  composition,  and  it  has  no  other  purpose.  The  words 
first  taught  on  the  blackboard  in  reading,  and  the  com- 
monly used  and  constantly  recurring  words  of  the  child, 
in  short,  the  script  vocabulary,  should  be  the  words 
first  spelled.  Bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  word  forms 
sink  into  the  mind  very  slowly,  and  that  patient  waiting 
and  working  are  especially  required  just  here.  Make 
every  step  with  the  small  child  a  success,  otherwise  you 
may  disgust  the  mind  with  its  failures.  You  must  wait 
for  idea  growth,  which  cannot  be  forced.  Therefore  do 
not  have  a  child  reproduce  words  without  a  copy  during 
the  first  year.  Spend  this  time  in  preparation  for 
talking  with  the  pencil.  Training  in  talking  with  the 
tongue  is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  preparing  for  this 
work.  If  this  be  properly  done,  the  words  will  drop  off 
the  pencil  as  easily  and  naturally  as  they  drop  off  the 
tongue.     Faith  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  results.     It 


SPELLING.  73 

is  a  great  element*  in  successful  teaching,  as  well  as 
humility.  Accept  crudities.  The  best  thing  which  the 
child  can  do  is  always  excellent.  You  may  take  the 
hand  and  help  the  child,  or  allow  him  to  trace  the  form, 
but  I  like  best  to  let  him  work  out  his  own  salva- 
tion. Get  to  sentences  as  soon  as  possible,  and  after 
that  keep  to  sentences,  for  they  are  the  written  forms  of 
thought  expression,  and  the  stimulus  of  the  thought 
enables  the  child  to  recall  the  word-forms  in  writing, 
just  as  it  does  in  reading.  Do  all  this  work  easily  and 
slowly,  and  in  the  doing  of  it  let  the  child  alone  and 
don't  fuss  with  him.  If  a  child  makes  anything  wrong, 
rub  it  right  out,  make  it  a  sort  of  dissolving  view. 
Have  him  acquire  the  power  of  copying  from  the  black- 
board with  perfect  accuracy  any  sentence  he  can  read. 
Never  accept  any  careless  work.  Don't  scold,  but  let 
the  work  vanish  under  the  sponge  with  quiet  celerity, 
and  have  the  child  do  it  over.  A  better  vocabulary  can 
be  gained  by  writing  than  by  reading.  Form,  during 
the  first  year,  a  nucleus  vocabulary  of  written  words,  so 
distinctly  fixed  in  the  mind  that  they  can  be  reproduced 
instantly,  without  copy  and  with  perfect  accuracy. 
Train  children  to  know  when  they  can  see  a  word  men- 
tally, and  when  they  cannot.  In  other  words,  have 
them  know  when  they  don't  know.  Say  to  them, 
*'  Don't  write  that  word  if  you  don't  know  it,"  but 
never  allow  them  to  guess.  Every  guess  brings  before 
the  children  a  wrong  form,  and  as  only  one  is  right  the 
wrong  are  in  a  majority.  I  w^ould  never  allow  a  child 
either  to  see  or  to  hear  any  wrong  forms.  When  they  get 
into  the  High  School  they  may  come  in.     There  will 


74  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING, 

be  plenty  of  time  for  false  syntax  then.  When  a  word 
is  spelled  wrong,  don't  explain,  say  nothing,  except 
perhaps,  **  You  didn't  see  right,"  and  erase  it  at  once. 
Cultivate  constantly  the  child's  desire  to  do  work  well, 
and  that  desire  will  absorb  all  his  energies,  leaving  no 
time  for  idleness  or  mischief.  In  dictating,  read  the 
sentence  in  your  best  voice,  and  read  it  but  once o  Pupils 
should  be  trained  to  hear  perfectly,  as  well  as  to  read 
expressively.  When  they  can  write  readily  and  accu- 
rately from  dictation,  begin  to  train  them  to  talk  with 
the  pencil.  As  soon  as  this  is  accomplished,  all  spelling 
per  se  may  cease,  and  this  branch  of  study  be  taught  in 
composition.  They  should  be  able  from  this  time  for- 
ward to  write  page  after  page  without  a  mistake  in  spell- 
ing, and  with  capitals  and  punctuation  marks  correctly 
placed. 


TALK   XI. 

WRITING. 

I  HAVE  called  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  second 
great  means  of  expression,  i.e.  by  writing,  should  be 
placed  in  the  power  of  the  child  just  as  soon  as  possible 
after  he  enters  school.  One  great  advantage  of  written, 
over  oral,  work,  is  that  the  written  enables  the  teacher 
to  get  at  and  develop  the  individuality  of  the  child. 
In  oral  lessons,  the  answers  of  bright  children  are  con- 
stantly copied  and  imitated  by  others.  Whereas,  in 
written  composition  each  child  must  express  his 
thoughts  for  himself  and  by  himself.  By  means  of  the 
command  of  writing,  the  child  can  be  trained  to 
do  a  great  deal  of  busy  work,  thus  keeping  his  mind 
and  hand  constantly  employed.  The  third  reason  for 
teaching  writing  very  early  in  the  course  is,  that  the 
work  necessary  to  the  command  of  good  legible  hand- 
writing may  be  entirely  finished  ;  and  the  time  hereto- 
fore taken  throughout  the  eight  or  nine  years  for 
writing,  may  be  used  for  something  more  profitable. 
Writing  may  be  kept  in  the  best  condition  throughout 
the  whole  course,  if  language  is  properly  taught,  and 
the  rule,  "never  allow  any  careless  work,*' closely 
followed. 


76  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

There  are  two  things  to  be  acquired  in  writing  :  First, 
the  forms  of  letters.  ^  Second,  movement  with  the  pen. 
The  conventional  forms  of  the  letters  has  been  establish- 
ed by  the  highest  authorities  in  writing  in  this  country. 
All  the  systems  in  our  schools  have  substantially  the 
same  forms.  The  slant  of  letters  (between  51  and 
52  degrees)  is  very  nearly  identical  in  all.  It  is  not 
my  purpose  to  discuss  whether  these  forms  are  right 
or  wrong.  It  is  true  that  when  pupils  enter  the  upper 
primary  and  grammar  grades,  they  are  trained  to  make 
these  established  forms.  It  is  a  great  saving  of  time 
and  toil  to  make  these  forms  right  in  the  beginning,  so 
they  will  never  have  to  be  changed.  Allow  children  to 
display  what  is  called  their  individuality  at  the  start  (that 
is  to  write  any  way  and  every  way),  and  it  is  much  more 
difficult  to  train  them  into  good  handwriting  when  they 
take  the  pen,  than  it  would  be  if  they  had  never  written 
at  all  ;  many  claim  that  fixed  forms  of  writing  injure 
the  child's  individuality,  or  destroys  the  character  dis- 
played in  writing.  As  well  might  we  say  that  the  child 
should  be  allowed  to  pronounce  words  as  he  pleased,  as 
the  fixed  pronunciation  acquired  by  imitation  of  cor- 
rect standards  would  seriously  affect  his  individuality. 
The  most  potent  reason  why  teachers  do  not  train  chil- 
dren to  write  correctly  is,  that  they  cannot  write  well 
themselves,  and  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  learn. 
Teachers  should  train  themselves  by  constant  and  care- 
ful practice  to  write  with  a  great  degree  of  perfection 
on  the  blackboard,  so  as  to  give  the  children  a  good 
ideal  toward  which  they  can  work.  In  this  question  of 
character  in  writing,   there    is  one  rule  that  teachers 


WRITING,  77 

would  do  well  to  follow  ;  in  writing  as  in  all  other 
things,  —  precision  precedes  ease.  That  is,  let  the 
established  form  be  thoroughly  acquired,  and  then, 
when  the  child  has  formed  a  character,  that  character 
will  go  into  the  writing.  The  painful  attention  now 
required  to  decipher  the  manuscript  of  most  great  men 
and  women  could  be  given  to  something  else  more 
beneficial. 

The  foundation  of  spelling  should  be  learned  entirely 
by  writing.  x\s  we  have  shown  in  the  application  of 
the  principles  of  teaching  reading,  every  word  that  the 
child  learns  from  the  blackboard  should  be  carefully 
copied  on  the  slate  or  paper.  These  copies,  as  I  have 
said,  should  be  written  with  exceeding  care.  At  the 
same  time  technical  writing  should  begin.  In  this  there 
are  certain  elementary  principles  that  are  the  key-notes 
of  the  whole.  Find  them  and  follow  them,  and  you  are 
certain  of  success.  Begin  with  one  letter  and  stay 
upon  that  letter  till  it  is  learned.  The  child  must 
have  the  ideal  to  follow,  and  that  comes  slowly  into  the 
mind  through  the  eye.  Begin  with  this  fundamental 
form,  found  in  the  first  letter  taught,  and  work  on  until 
you  get  it,  even  if  it  takes  a  year  or  two  years.  The 
children  will  not  tire  till  the  teacher  gets  tired.  Have 
the  standard,  the  ideal  clear,  and  they  will  work  to- 
ward it  patiently.  Get  them  to  master  the  foundation 
form,  which  is  also  the  simplest,  and  then  take  the 
next  shortest  and  easiest  step.  I  have  always  taken 
the  small  letter  /  as  my  fundamental  form,  and  have 
taught  the  writing  of  the  alphabet  in  the  following 
order  : 


78  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON  TEACHING. 


Do  not  allow  the  children  to  try  a  new  letter  till  they 
have  mastered  the  one  upon  which  they  are  working. 
In  this  way  you  will  teach  writing  once  for  all,  and 
there  will  be  no  need  of  pursuing  it  as  a  study  in  the 
grammar  grades. 


WRITING,  79 

MOVEMENT    IN     WRITING. 

Pen  writing  should  be  taught  just  as  soon  as  a  child 
has  thoroughly  acquired  the  forms  of  the  letters.  It 
should  begin,  certainly  in  the  third  year,  and  may  begin 
in  the  second.  This  is  a  purely  gymnastic  exercise,  and, 
like  all  gymnastic  exercises,  position  and  movement 
should  be  acquired  by  the  greatest  precision  and  accu- 
racy. The  simple  thing  to  be  accomplished  in  pen  writing 
is,  that  a  perfectly  smooth  line  may  be  made  on  the  paper 
by  both  nibs  of  the  pen.  Give  very  few  directions,  and  fol- 
low them  strictly.  Erect,  easy  position  ;  both  feet  square- 
ly planted  on  the  floor  ;  knees  at  a  little  more  than  right 
angles  ;  forearm  on  the  table  ;  elbow  never  drawn  back 
of  a  right  angle.  Slide  on  the  nail  of  the  fourth  or  ring- 
finger.  Let  the  pen  rest  in  the  pen  fingers  (the  thumb 
and  first  two  fingers),  the  pen-holder  opposite  the 
knuckle.  Give  a  great  many  simple  exercises  in  move- 
ment. It  is  a  good  plan  to  perform  these  exercises  to 
rhythmic  movement,  regulated  by  piano-playing.  It  is 
of  little  use  to  have  one  position  and  drill  for  these 
gymnastic  exercises  in  writing,  and  to  have  another 
and  entirely  different  one  in  the  regular  writing,  com- 
position, etc.,  of  the  pupil.  A  few  months'  thorough 
work  in  position  and  movement,  and  then  rigidly  hold- 
ing pupils  to  the  same  in  all  their  writing,  will  give 
each  child  an  excellent  hand-writing,  unless  some  phys- 
ical difficulty  intervenes. 


TALK  XII. 

TALKING    WITH    THE    PENCIL. 

When  the  child  enters  the  school-room,  he  comes  into 
a  new  world,  and  should  bring  all  that  is  good  and 
pleasant  in  his  old  world  with  him.  The  strange  sur- 
roundings, the  new  faces,  banish  from  his  consciousness 
almost  everything  but  wonder  and  fear.  If  to  this  is 
added  a  teacher  strong  in  discipline,  who  would  put 
the  pupil  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  well-worn  grooves  of 
order,  it  is  likely  that  fear  and  consequent  timidity  will 
be  the  controlling  power  in  the  child  while  he  is  in 
school.  On  the  other  hand,  a  warm,  affectionate  greet- 
ing, a  cordial  shake  of  the  hand,  and  something  to  do 
or  see  that  is  pleasant,  from  the  moment  that  he  comes 
into  the  school-room,  will  drive  away  his  fears,  and 
allow  his  own  nature  and  his  own  knowledge  and  skill  to 
'have  free  course.  Give  a  child  something  to  do  the  mo- 
ment he  enters  the  school-room.  A  piece  of  chalk  to 
work  on  the  board,  a  slate  and  pencil,  a  pile  of  blocks, 
anything  to  attract  his  attention.  Lead  the  child  to 
talk  as  freely  in  the  school- room  as  he  does  at  home. 
He  has  learned  idioms,  pronunciation,  accent,  use  of 
language,  by  imitation.  Continue  this  process  of 
imitation  by  exercises  in  imitating  the  voice  of  the 
teacher.     Have  him  pronounce  sentences,   suiting    the 


TALKING   WITH  THE  PENCIL.  8i 

words  to  the  action,  thus,  —  teacher  stands  before 
the  class  and  says  (holding  up  her  right  hand), 
"This  is  my  right  hand,"  the  children  do  the  same; 
"This  is  my  left  hand,"  *' I  can  stand  up,"  **  See 
me  stand  up,"  *'  I  can  run,"  **  I  can  walk/'  "  I  can 
jump,"  '*  I  can  skip,"  etc.;  always  uttering  the  word 
as  the  action  is  performed.  Then  have  pupils  review. 
Ask  them  how  many  things  they  can  do  ;  and  have 
one  pupil  after  another  perform  acts,  and  tell  at  the 
same  time  what  they  are  doing.  Let  the  teacher  point 
to  objects  and  say,  "  There  is  the  clock,"  "  There 
is  a  picture,"  and  have  the  pupils  imitate  her.  Use 
here.^  there^  this^  those^  in  the  same  way.  Place  objects  in 
different  positions,  and  have  pupils  tell  where  they  are. 
Introduce  the  easiest  object  lessons.  Lead  pupils  to  tell 
what  they  see,  in  the  simplest  possible  way.  Plants, 
stuffed  animals,  and  other  objects  of  the  kind  may  be 
used  with  good  effect.  Lessons  in  Form  and  Color,  and 
in  fact  all  the  lessons  laid  down  in  the  Manuals  of  Ob- 
ject Teaching,  may  be  used  as  helps  for  the  teacher,  if 
she  allows  the  child  to  see  for  himself,  and  use  his  own 
language  in  talking.  Pictures  may  be  used  in  the 
same  way.  The  great  purpose  should  be  to  train  the 
child  to  talk  freely  and  correctly.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  note  down  all  the  idioms  a  child  has  at  his  com- 
mand. Faults  in  pronunciation  should  be  corrected  by 
repetition  of  the  right  pronunciation.  Faults  in  articula- 
tion should  be  carefully  corrected,  by  leading  the  child 
to  place  the  organs  of  speech  in  the  proper  positions. 
Until  the  child  talks  with  a  good  degree  of  freedom, 
little  or  no  effort  should  be  made  to  change  the  incorrect 


82  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

use  of  language.  After  this  important  period  is  passed, 
pupils  should  not  be  allowed  to  use  ungrammatical 
forms.  The  simple  remedy  for  inaccurate  habits  of 
speech  is  to  give  the  child  many  opportunities  to  use 
proper  sentences.  This  should  be  done  almost  invari- 
ably with  objects.  If,  for  instance,  the  child  uses  is  for 
are^  lead  the  child  to  talk  about  numbers  of  objects  be- 
fore him,  using  the  word  aj-e.  You  will  remember  that 
I  said  that  all  new  idioms  should  be  learned  in  the  oral 
language,  and  not  in  the  written.  All  the  modifications 
of  subject  and  predicate  may  be  taught  objectively. 
For  instance,  the  adverbs  and  adjectives.  Objects  may 
be  placed  in  different  positions, — for  example,  a  hat  upon 
the  table, — and  the  question  asked,"  Where  is  the  hat  ?" 
All  the  prepositions  may  be  taught  in  this  manner.  De- 
grees of  comparison  may  be  taught  by  comparing  ob- 
jects. "  This  is  a  little  block,'*  *'  That  block  is  larger 
than  this,"  "This  block  is  the  largest."  Adjectives 
may  be  taught  by  leading  the  child  to  see  the  qualities 
of  objects. 

When  the  child  or  a  group  of  children  has  been 
trained  to  observe  attentively,  and  to  talk  fluently,  the 
work  of  teaching  Reading  may  profitably  be  begun. 
It  is  generally  an  extravagant  use  of  time  to  begin 
Reading  before  this  power  is  acquired.  When  teachers 
fully  comprehend  that  education  is  the  generation  of 
power,  they  will  know  better  how  to  adapt  the  steps  of 
progress  to  the  mind's  ability.  Haste  makes  a  terrible 
waste,  when  it  consists  in  taxing  the  child's  strength  in 
an  undue  degree.  I  have  given  in  a  former  talk  the 
method  by  which  I  would  teach  Spelling.    The  first  year 


TALKING  WITH  THE  PENCIL.  ^^ 

should  be  spent  in  training  the  child  to  copy  (in  sen- 
tences) all  the  words  he  learns  in  reading,  with  absolute 
accuracy.  The  beginning  of  the  second  year  dictation 
may  be  given.  I  wish  to  repeat  here  two  rules  for 
Spelling,  that  should  be  invariably  followed.  First, train 
the  children  to  know  when  they  don't  know  a  word. 
The  teacher  should  write  words  which  the  children  do 
not  know  on  the  blackboard,  until  they  are  able  to  use 
the  dictionary.  Second,  never  allow  a  child  to  write  a 
word  incorrectly,  or  see  a  word  incorrectly  spelled,  if  it 
be  possible  to  prevent  it.  When  it  is  found  that  pupils 
can  write  from  dictation  all  the  words  they  have  previ- 
ously used  in  copying,  the  Talking  with  the  Pencil 
should  begin. 


TALK    XIII. 

TALKING    WITH    THE    PENCIL,    CONTINUED. 

All  education  consists  of  the  development  of  thought 
and  expression.  The  thought  must  precede  the  expres- 
sion. Thought,  as  I  have  explained,  is  the  relation  of 
ideas.  The  best  stimulus  the  child  can  have  for  clear 
thought  is  the  observation  of  objects  in  relation.  The 
simplest  way  to  bring  thought  into  the  mind,  in  order  to 
express  it  with  the  pencil,  is  to  perform  some  simple  act. 
Let  the  teacher  take  up,  for  example,  a  block,  and  ask, 
**  What  did  I  do?"  **  Tell  me  upon  your  slates  what 
I  did,"  and  have  pupils  write  an  appropriate  sentence, 
each  writing  it  in  his  own  way.  Let  the  teacher  sit  down 
in  a  chair  ;  stand  up  ;  walk  ;  run  ;  reach  ;  laugh  ;  sing  ; 
shake  hands  ;  rap  on  the  table  ;  point  to  the  clock  ;  and 
perform  a  thousand  simple  acts,  and  have  pupils  tell  with 
their  pencils  what  she  has  done.  Let  a  pupil  perform 
an  act,  and  have  the  others  describe  it  with  their  pencils. 
Let  two  pupils  plan,  and  do,  something  for  their  play- 
mates to  describe.  In  this  way  all  the  idioms  that  a 
child  uses,  and  even  new  idioms,  may  be  introduced. 
Pupils  may  be  led  to  use  the  various  modifications  of 
subject  and  predicate  in  single  words  (adjectives  or 
adverbs),  phrases,  and  clauses.  Prepositions  may  be 
taught  in  the  written  language,  as  they  were  in  the  oral, 


TALKING  WITH  THE  PENCIL,  CONTINUED,       85 

by  placing  objects  in  different  positions.  Adverbs, 
by  modifying  actions,  as,  walking  slowly^  and  swiftly^ 
etc.  In  fact,  all  the  ways  I  have  just  given  for  oral  work 
may  be  used  in  the  written.  Pictures  may  be  effectively 
used.  Every  teacher  should  have  a  large  collection  of 
good  pictures.  These  may  be  cut  out  of  illustrated 
books  and  papers,  and  pasted  upon  stout  cardboard. 
Let  each  child  take  a  picture,  and  write  upon  the  slate 
one  thing  that  he  sees  in  the  picture.  After  he  has  done 
that  well,  let  him  write  another  and  another.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  to  train  children  to  write  sentences  ; 
using  the  proper  capitals  and  punctuation.  This  can 
be  done  only  by  having  them  write  a  great  number  of 
single  sentences.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  write 
connected  sentences,  until  they  have  formed  the  hab- 
it of  beginning  and  ending  the  sentences  properly. 
Teachers  will  often  allow  children  to  write  a  whole 
page  without  the  proper  separation  of  sentences  one 
from  the  other,  repeating  *'  and"  and  other  words  over 
and  over  again.  This  is  simply  leading  them  into  bad 
habits.  A  good  way  to  prevent  this  is  to  require  pupils 
to  ask  and  answer  questions,  writing  both  question  and 
answer.  Pictures  may  be  used  in  a  great  many  ways. 
Write  questions  on  the  board,  to  aid  the  pupils— such 
as,  **  What  things  do  you  see  in  the  picture  ?"  *'  Where 
are  they  ?"  '*  What  are  they  doing  ?"  **  What  have  they 
been  doing?*'  **  What  do  you  think  they  will  do?'* 
*'  What  are  the  names  of  the  persons  in  the  picture  ?" 
\Note, — Let  pupils  give  names  according  to  their  own 
fancy.]  These  and  many  other  questions  may  be 
asked  to  stimulate    investigation.     When    the    proper 


S6  NOTES   OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

time  arrives — that  is,  when  pupils  can  write  single  sen- 
tences correctly — have  them  describe  the  picture  fully  ; 
and  then  have  them  imagine  and  write  a  story  about  the 
picture.  This  they  will  do  with  great  pleasure.  From 
the  first,  children  should  be  trained  to  tell,  in  their  own 
language,  what  the}^  have  read  ;  either  at  the  close  of 
the  lesson,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  succeeding  lesson. 
When  they  begin  to  talk  with  the  pencil,  after  each 
lesson  in  reading,  let  them  go  to  their  seats  and  write 
one  thing  they  have  read.  Follow  this  by  two  things, 
then  three,  then  four  ;  and  at  last  have  them  write  all 
they  can  remember. 

Objects  may  be  used  as  the  best  means  of  training 
children  to  talk  with  the  pencil.  I  wish  to  say  a  word 
here  about  object  teaching.  That  object  teaching  which 
tries  to  force  a  child  to  see  all  the  teacher  sees  in  an  ob- 
ject, or  has  prepared,  by  copying  a  schedule  of  things 
to  be  seen  from  a  Manual  of  Object  Teaching,  and  then 
leads  the  child  to  use  a  lot  of  strange  words,  like 
"opaque,"  **  transparent,"  **  flexible,"  etc.,  at  the 
same  time  he  is  struggling  to  observe  ;  is  to  my  mind 
as  completely  wrong  as  the  old-fashioned  text-book  rote 
learning.  In  the  first  place,  the  whole  attention  should 
be  directed  to  the  observation  of  the  object,  without 
being  encumbered  by  new  words.  Secondly,  the  child 
can  see  very  little  in  the  object  at  first.  The  attempt  to 
make  him  see  that  which  the  mature  mind  only  has  the 
power  to  observe,  is  manifestly  wrong.  The  rule  to  be 
followed  is — place  the  object  before  the  child,  let  him 
see  what  he  can,  and  write  what  he  sees.  Then  by 
questioning  and  devices  lead  him  to  see  more. 


TALKING  WITH  THE  PENCIL,    CONTINUED,       87 

Follow  the  child,  and  not  make  the  child  follow  you. 
Thus,  gradually  and  naturally,  the  child's  powers  of 
observation  will  develop.  In  other  words,  the  object 
should  ask  the  questions,  and  the  child  should  answer 
them. 

Natural  objects  are  the  very  best  means  of  training 
the  observing  faculties  ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  child 
can  be  led  to  acquire  the  elementary  facts  or  a,  b,  c's  of 
Science.  Seeds  sown  on  brown  paper,  or  in  cotton, 
their  germination  and  growth  watched,  and  every 
change  noted  by  the  children,  on  paper  or  slate,  may  be 
used  to  arouse  the  greatest  curiosity,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  teach  language  in  a  very  effective  way.  Plants 
inside  of  the  room,  and  out-of-doors  shrubs,  trees,  and 
flowers,  should  be  made  the  subjects  of  object  and 
language  lessons.  I  trust  that  I  shall  live  to  see  the 
day,  when  both  Reading  and  Composition  will  be 
beautifully  taught  by  the  inspiring  stimulus  of  facts, 
gained  from  natural  objects,  that  will  lay  a  grand 
foundation  for  a  future  knowledge  of  all  the  Natural 
Sciences. 

All  lessons  in  objects,  form,  and  color,  should  be  made 
language  lessons.  The  highest  perfection  of  composi- 
tion is  reached  in  accurate  descriptions  of  objects. 
Toward  this  end  all  teaching  of  language  should 
steadily  tend,  without  the  slightest  forcing  or  over- 
driving. 

Every  teacher  should  be  a  good  story-teller.  By 
constant  practice,  she  should  be  able  to  tell  a  story 
in  a  clear,  simple,  concise  manner.  Hans  Christian 
Andersen's,   Grimm's,   and    Hebel's    charming    stories 


88  NOTES  OF    TALKS   ON    TEACHING. 

may  be  told  by  the  teacher,  and  then  written  out  by 
the  pupil. 

In  conclusion,  there  are  certain  important  rules  to  be 
observed  at  every  step.  First,  always  be  sure  that  the 
thought  is  in  the  mind  before  you  ask  the  pupil  to  ex- 
press it.  Second,  never  allow  any  careless  work  ;  never 
permit  a  pupil  to  write  a  word  or  sentence  wrong,  as  I 
have  said,  if  it  be  possible  to  prevent  it.  It  is  a  good 
plan  for  the  teacher  to  move  around  among  her  pupils 
while  they  are  writing,  and  closely  watch  all  they  are 
doing.  Erase  every  mistake,  and  have  pupils  try  again. 
Such  expressions  as,  '*  You  do  not  see  well,"  "  I  am 
glad  you  see  something  in  the  picture  "  (or  the  object), 
**  Look  again,  and  look  closer,"  "  Be  very  careful  while 
you  are  writing  that  word,"  may  be  used  by  the  teacher 
with  good  effect.  Third,  have  pupils  read  everything 
they  write.  Pupils  may  read  each  other's  stories.  Use 
ruled  brown  paper  freely  in  writing.  When  pupils  get 
command  of  the  pen,  have  them  use  ink  in  writing  their 
stories. 

If  this  plan  of  training  pupils  to  talk  with  their 
pencils,  which  I  have  tried  to  outline,  be  closely  fol- 
lowed, I  am  quite  sure,  from  my  experience,  that  every 
child  of  ordinary  ability  may  be  trained  to  write  accu- 
rately and  rapidly  page  after  page  of  good  English  in 
three  years.  And,  above  all,  they  may  be  trained  to 
talk  with  their  pencils  with  as  much  eagerness  and 
pleasure  as  they  talk  with  their  tongues.  But  the  best 
result  is  not  found  in  correct  expression,  but  in  the 
power  to  think. 


TALK    XIV. 

COMPOSITION. 

In  the  previous  talk,  I  tried  to  show  how  children  may 
be  trained  in  three  years  to  write  legibly,  correctly,  and 
rapidly  a  page  of  English  ;  that  good,  patient,  careful 
teaching  and  training  will  lead  them  to  talk  with  the 
pencil  as  correctly  and  fluently  as  with  the  tongue.  The 
greatest  result  is  that  they  love  to  do  this  work,  and  that 
they  are  entirely  prepared  by  a  thoroughly  formed  habit, 
ever  after  to  express  whatever  thoughts  they  may  have 
in  good  English.  Education  consists,  primarily,  in  the 
development  of  thought  and  expression.  Expression  is 
used  by  the  true  teacher  simply  and  solely  as  a  means 
of  knowing  just  how  and  what  the  pupil  thinks,  in  order 
to  lead  him  to  higher  struggles  and  greater  victories. 
I  am  aware  that  most  so-called  teaching  consists  in  the 
training  of  expression  without  regard  to  thought — that 
is,  the  child's  imitative  powers  alone  are  cultivated, 
while  his  creative  strength  is  left  to  pine  and  wither 
under  a  mass  of  meaningless  words.  If  the  teaching 
is  real  teaching — /.  ^.,  thought  development — all  the 
studies  that  now  follow  (after  the  third  year).  Geog- 
raphy, Arithmetic,  and  the  Sciences,  may  be  made  the 
best  kinds  of  language  lessons.  Every  real  lesson  is 
carefully  planned  and  given    to  evolve  thought.     The 


90  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

child's  previous  training  has  given  him  the  power  to 
give  to  the  teacher  all  the  thought  evolved,  either  orally, 
or  in  writing.  During  the  lesson  the  thought  is  given 
orally  ;  when  it  is  finished  it  should  invariably  be  given 
to  the  teacher  in  writing.  All  true  up-building  of  any 
science  consists  of  logical  premises,  sequences,  and  con- 
clusions. Each  step  grows  out  of  the  consistent  union 
of  all  previous  thought  of  which  each  lesson  is  a  con- 
stituent part.  It  holds  true,  then,  that  if  the  thought 
evolved  in  the  pupiPs  mind  be  logical,  its  expression, 
either  orally  or  in  writing  will  be — that  is,  real  teach- 
ing, assisted  by  constant  written  expression,  must  train 
a  child  into  the  highest  art  of  written  composition. 

There  is  little  or  no  necessity  of  going  outside  of  the 
regular  branches  for  the  best  kind  of  language  teaching. 
Elementary  Geography  furnishes  an  exceedingly  fruitful 
source  for  charming  written  descriptions  of  hills,  valleys, 
plains,  coast  lines,  bays,  gulfs,  rivers,  springs,  in  fact 
all  the  forms  of  water  and  land  under  the  pupil's  obser- 
vation, which  alone  can  give  the  power  of  imagining 
all  unseen  forms  of  land  and  water.  When  these  un- 
seen forms  are  moulded  and  described,  and  the  great, 
magnificent  unseen  world  is  imaged  through  and  by  the 
seen,  all  these  creations  of  the  imagination  will  make  in- 
spiring subjects  for  composition. 

Take  one  step  farther,  and  from  the  earth  spring  the 
countless  forms  of  vegetation.  Trees,  plants,  and  flowers 
may  be  described  by  the  child,  and  each  description  be 
an  inspiration  to  further  observation. 

The  animals  may  be  described  by  the  quick  pens  of 
the  children.     Shelter,  clothing,  cities,  commerce,  and 


COMPOSITION.  91 

all  the  interesting  subjects  with  which  Geography  fairly 
teems,  form  an  exhaustless  source  of  excellent  themes. 
Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity  may  be  left  to  repose  serenely 
in  the  lists  of  subjects  for  compositions,  until  they  have 
time  to  bud  and  blossom  in  the  child's  heart. 

History,  so  closely  allied  and  growing  out  of  Geog- 
raphy, if  properly  taught,  may  be  made  a  most  excel- 
lent means  of  language  teaching.  Pictures,  illustrating 
the  great  events  in  history,  may  be  described.  Follow- 
ing this,  the  teacher  should  tell  short,  interesting  stories 
in  history,  which  may  be  given  back  by  the  ready 
writers.  Then  comes  a  carefully  arranged  list  of  topics 
in  History.  The  school  library,  if  teachers  and  school 
committees  have  done  their  duty,  is  rich  with  historical 
works,  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  children.  The  village 
or  city  library  also,  is  at  their  command.  The  eager 
children  are  led  to  read  up  the  topic  in  a  large  number 
of  excellent  books.  In  the  hour  of  recitation,  they  pour 
out  their  new-found  treasures  for  their  schoolmates  to 
hear  and  discuss,  and  for  the  teacher  to  mould  into  con- 
sistency and  order.  Then  comes  the  happy  time  when 
they  can  tell  the  whole  story  in  their  own  words,  on 
clean  sheets  of  white  paper.  I  am  describing  no  Utopia, 
but  a  reality,  that  comes  to  those  who  have  an  immense 
faith  in  the  capabilities  of  human  development.  Every 
pupil  in  a  grammar  school,  at  the  end  of  an  eight  years' 
course,  may  be  trained  to  do  this  beautiful  work.  You 
who,  instead  of  feeding  the  child's  wonderful  exhaustless 
power  of  imagining  the  good,  the  true,  and  the  beauti- 
ful, driven  where  the  cutting  lash  of  tradition  turns 
the   grand  study   of   history   into   a   dry,    stupid  rote- 


92  NOTES  OF   TALKS   ON   TEACHING. 

learning  of  pages,  dates,  and  meaningless  generaliza- 
tions, will  remember  that  the  New  Education  leads  you 
to  the  heights  beyond  Jordan,  within  sight  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land.  Do  not  turn  back  to  the  rocky,  sandy  desert 
of  Sin. 

Arithmetic,  if  it  be  the  study  of  numbers  of  things, 
instead  of  figures,  has  for  its  purpose  the  development 
of  exact  logic.  And  if  the  logic  is  exact,  the  statements 
and  rules  and  definitions  must  be.  The  pupils  are  led 
to  discover  every  fact,  process,  and  generalization  for 
themselves,  and  then  to  state  what  they  have  discov- 
ered in  concise  language.  Thus  Arithmetic  may  be 
made  to  fill  an  indispensable  place  in  language  training. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  use  of  the  elements  of  Natural 
Science  as  an  excellent  means  of  language  teaching. 
From  what  I  have  already  said,  you  will  see  that  each 
step  in  the  teaching  of  Science  may  be  materially 
assisted  by  written  descriptions.  There  are  teachers 
who  stoutly  aver  that  the  child  can  spend  weeks  and 
months,  and  even  years,  upon  the  study  of  columns  of 
words  in  that  expressionless  volume  called  the  Spelling- 
book.  Now,  I  would  like  to  ask,  if  the  pupil  writes,  and 
writes  correctly,  day  after  day  all  the  words  he  learns 
in  History,  Geography,  Arithmetic,  and  the  Natural 
Sciences,  how  many  more  words  does  he  need  to  learn  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  Spelling-book  ? 

When  should  Grammar  be  taught  ?  After  the  facts 
necessary  to  the  metaphysical  generalizations,  that 
are  indispensable  for  the  comprehension  of  the  difficult 
science  of  language.  When  the  mind  is  ready  to  use  a 
high  form  of  logical  deduction.     What  is  the  use  of 


COMPOSITION,  93 

Grammar  ?  First,  to  enable  the  mind  to  look  more 
closely  into  the  masterpieces  of  composition,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  comprehend  the  thought  of  an  author  in 
all  its  fulness  and  completeness  ;  second,  to  express 
thought  orally  and  in  writing,  in  the  clearest,  most  con- 
cise, and  beautiful  manner.  Correct  speaking  and  cor- 
rect writing  can  only  be  learned  by  constantly  speaking 
and  writing  correctly.  No  incorrect  form  should  ever 
be  presented  to  pupils  until  they  reach  the  age  of  care- 
ful reflection.  The  custom  of  writing  incorrect  syntax 
for  children  to  correct,  is  a  vicious  one.  Many  teachers 
who  are  now  breaking  away  from  the  cast-iron  method 
of  teaching,  parsing,  and  analysis,  are  diluting  the  old 
forms  by  an  infusion  of  weaker  ones — /.  ^.,  they  are 
training  children  to  use  words  for  the  sake  of  using 
them,  without  regard  to  the  thought  that  should  always 
inspire  their  use.  They  lead  children  to  make  sentences, 
using  **  are,**  **  is,'*  **  been,"  etc.,  just  (as  I  have  said) 
for  the  purpose  of  using  the  word.  Now,  if  the  child 
is  continually  writing,  from  the  second  year  to  the 
eighth  inclusive,  and  every  sentence  is  written  under 
the  stimulus  of  thought,  he  will  use  all  the  necessary 
words  correctly,  and  repeatedly.  There  is,  therefore, 
little  or  no  need  of  purely  word  lessons.  But  this  teach- 
ing of  grammar  is  infinitely  better  than  the  old  way  of 
taking  a  sentence,  that  was  made  to  express  a  beautiful 
thought,  or  behind  which  lies  a  grand  picture  ;  and 
mangling  it  by  hard  names,  cutting  it  into  minute 
pieces,  hanging  its  mutilated  remains  on  cruel  diagrams  ; 
while  the  author's  meaning  remains  as  far  away  from 
the  pupil's  mind  as  the  bright  stars  in  heaven.     There 


94  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

will  come  a  time,  in  the  course  of  proper  development, 
when  teaching  technical  grammar  may  be  made  a  most 
excellent  and  profitable  study  ;  when  the  rich  mines 
of  thought  and  emotion,  of  which  our  literature  is  full, 
may  be  opened  to  the  growing  minds  of  children. 
Technical  grammar,  to  my  mind,  as  it  is  usually  taught, 
effectually  disgusts  children,  and  bars  the  way  to  deeper 
insight  into  the  beauty  and  strength  of  language. 


TALK    XV. 

NUMBER. 

At  the  outset  of  this  discussion,  three  questions  should 
be  very  carefully  answered  :  What  is  number  ?  What 
can  be  done  with  numbers  ?  What  are  the  uses  of 
number  ?  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  we  know 
definitely  and  exactly  the  nature  of  the  subject  we 
teach  ;  its  relations  to  other  subjects  ;  its  place  as  a 
means  of  mental  development  ;  and  its  utility  in  the 
affairs  of  life.  If  the  correct  definition  of  the  subject  be 
not  entirely  comprehended,  all  attempts  at  teaching  will 
be  vague  and  unsatisfactory.  The  usual  definitions  of 
number  are  open  to  criticism  ;  for  instance,  *'  A  number 
is  a  collection  of  units."  A  collection  of  objects  of  the 
same  kind  may  be  designated  as  3.  few,  several,  some,  etc. 
Thus  you  see  the  definition  fails  in  definiteness.  The 
best  way  to  define  anything  is  to  concentrate  the  mind 
upon  the  thing  to  be  defined.  I  place,  for  example, 
several  blocks  before  you.  You  can  say,  **  There  are 
some  blocks,**  **  There  are  several  blocks,'*  **  There  are  a 
few  blocks.''  **  Some,**  **  several,"  and  **  few"  are  ad- 
jectives limiting  the  substantive,  "  blocks.**  If  you  wish 
to  be  more  definite  in  regard  to  a  collection  of  blocks, 
by  a  closer  inspection  you  are  enabled  to  say,  **  There 
are  five  blocks.'*     **  Five'*  is  also  a  limiting  adjective. 


96  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  former  limita- 
tions of  "few,*'  **some,'*  and  **  several,"  and  of  the 
last,  "five**?  The  difference,  you  see,  is  in  definite- 
ness  of  limitation  of  the  collection.  *^  Five"  answers 
definitely  the  question,  "How  many  blocks?"  It  is 
difficult  to  formulate  a  satisfactory  definition  from 
these  facts.  The  best  we  can  give  at  present  is,  that 
number  definitely  limits  objects  of  the  same  kind  to 
how  many.  The  correlative  of  this  definition  is,  that 
surfaces,  lines,  corners,  or  points  definitely  limit  vol- 
umes or  bodies  of  matter  in  regard  to  dimensions.  You 
will  observe  that  number  definitely  limits  objects  of 
the  same  kind,  in  regard  to  how  many.  Number  lim- 
its nothing  vague  or  intangible.  Number  is  not  a 
quality  of  objects  or  any  part  of  an  object  ;  it  simply 
limits  objects  of  the  same  kind  in  one  particular 
way.  We  can  make  these  limitations  first,  by  the  senses  ; 
by  sight,  touch,  and  hearing.  But  these  limitations 
of  the  senses  must  have  their  limitations — that  is,  the 
visual,  tactual,  auricular  grasp  of  numbers  of  things, 
however  highly  cultivated,  must  reach  a  point  beyond 
which  it  cannot  go.  What  this  point  is,  I  am  not  at 
present  able  to  say.  Following,  and  leaving,  the  point 
where  the  sense-grasp  ceases,  must  come  what  may  be 
called,  the  grasp  of  the  imagination.  The  latter  depends 
totally  upon  the  former  for  its  definiteness  and  distinct- 
ness. This  fact  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  un- 
seen can  only  be  measured  by  the  seen.  For  instance, 
experience,  or,  in  other  words,  actual  sense  products,  are 
the  only  measures  of  that  which  cannot  come  within  the 
direct  and  limiting  acts  of  the  senses.     We  measure  the 


NUMBER,  97 

unseen  mile  by  the  yard  or  rod  that  is  definitely  fixed 
in  the  mind  by  close  observation.  We  measure  a  hun- 
dred things  by  a  standard  that  has  been  fixed  in  the  mind 
in  the  same  way,  by  the  action  of  the  senses. 

I  have  often  heard  objections  raised  to  the  object 
method  of  teaching  number,  because  the  eye  and  hand 
can  take  in  so  few  things  at  a  time.  This  objection  is 
illogical  to  the  last  degree  ;  for  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  our  measures  of  values,  that  can  be  obtained 
only  through  the  senses,  be  as  distinct  to  the  mind  as  the 
actual  yard-stick  or  bushel  to  the  measurer.  You  can 
easily  see  how  a  slight  fault  in  the  standard  would  bring 
about  an  immense  error  in  great  numbers  of  things. 
Precisely  in  the  same  way,  if  the  standards  of  measure 
are  not  distinct  in  the  mind,  the  imagination  of  num- 
bers of  things  that  lie  beyond  the  sense-grasp,  will  be 
weak  and  wrong.  Thus  you  see  that  the  illogical  argu- 
ment of  the  objectors  to  object  teaching  is,  in  reality, 
the  very  strongest  reason  that  can  be  given  in  favor  of 
such  teaching. 

What  can  be  done  with  numbers  ?  I  advise  you 
always,  for  such  answers,  to  observe  closely  numbers 
of  things.  Here  are  a  number  of  blocks.  What  can  I 
do  with  them  ?  In  what  relations  can  you  see  them  ? 
Take  this  one  number  ;  with  your  eyes  you  can  per- 
ceive the  definite  limitation  as  to  how  many.  What 
can  I  do  with  this  number  ?  I  can  separate  it  into 
other  numbers  or  parts,  each  of  which  you  limit  defi- 
nitely in  your  mind  by  the  means  of  sight.  Can  I  do 
more  ?  Try  it.  Here  are  several  numbers.  What  can 
be  done  with  them  ?    I  unite  them  into  one  number. 


98  NOTES  OF   TALKS   ON   TEACHING. 

What  more  can  be  done  with  a  number  ?  I  separate  the 
number  into  parts,  or  other  numbers  ;  I  unite  numbers 
into  one  whole  number.  I  can  do  this  actually,  or  I  can 
think  it  done.  Numbers  can  be  united  ;  a  number  can 
be  separated.  Every  operation  in  arithmetic,  however 
difficult  or  complex,  must  consist  of  one  or  both  of  these 
two  simple  processes — uniting  and  separating.  There 
are  two  relations  of  numbers,  in  these  two  processes, 
which  are  severally  actual  counterparts,  or  correlatives 
of  each  other.  These  relations  may  be  called,  first,  the 
relation  of  unequal  numbers  to  each  other  ;  second,  the 
relation  of  equal  numbers  to  each  other.  I  can  separate 
this  number  of  blocks  into  numbers  that  are  not  equal, 
each  to  the  other  ;  I  can  unite  the  unequal  numbers  into 
one  number.  I  can  separate  this  number  into  equal 
numbers  or  parts  ;  I  can  unite  the  equal  numbers  into  one 
number.  Here  we  have  the  so-called  fundamental  four 
operations  of  arithmetic.  Uniting  numbers  (or  making 
a  unit  of  them)  is  addition  ;  uniting  equal  numbers,  a 
simpler  process  to  the  eye  and  to  the  imagination  than 
the  union  of  unequal  numbers,  is  multiplication.  The 
reverse  of  the  former  is  subtraction  ;  of  the  latter, 
division.  A  full  comprehension  of  these  simple  facts,' 
and  the  highly  important  truth,  that  every  operation  in 
arithmetic  consists  solely  and  entirely  of  the  application 
of  these  simple  relations,  will  make  the  subject  of  arith- 
metic a  true  science,  instead  of  a  complex  art. 

What  is  the  use  of  number  ?  First,  and  the  most  im- 
portant point  to  be  understood  in  the  teaching  of  any 
subject,  is  its  bearing  upon  mental  development  ; 
second,  its  utility  as  applied  to  the  affairs  of  life.     The 


NUMBER,  99 

teaching  of  arithmetic  may  be  divided  into  two  parts  : 
first,  training  the  power  to  calculate  with  accuracy  and 
rapidity  ;  second,  the  development  of  the  power  to 
reason  exactly  and  logically.  When  we  train  a  child  to 
add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide  with  accuracy  and 
rapidity,  the  exactness  and  celerity  necessary  to  good 
work  trains  the  power  of  attention.  Mathematics  is  the 
only  exact  science  ;  if  the  premises  are  correct,  the  con- 
clusions must  be.  To  form  a  strong  effectual  habit  of 
seeing  and  thinking  of  things  just  as  they  are,  and  in 
their  exact  relations,  is  the  province  of  mathematics. 
There  are,  then,  two  motives  in  teaching  arithmetic  ; 
one  of  which  is  to  train  attention,  the  other,  the  higher 
and  more  important  one,  is  the  development  of  the 
power  to  reason  logically.  All  arithmetical  reasoning 
must  be  done,  by  bringing  the  mind  to  bear  directly 
upon  the  relations  of  numbers  of  things.  Language 
is  simply  the  means  of  bringing  the  numbers  of  things 
and  their  relations  into  the  mind. 

How  shall,  or  rather  how  must  number  be  taught  ?  I 
use  this  word  must  because,  primarily  and  fundament- 
ally, there  is  only  one  way  to  teach  number — that  is,  by 
direct  observation  of  numbers  of  objects.  We  may,  it 
is  true,  teach  the  language  of  number,  leaving  the  as- 
sociation of  the  language  with  the  ideas  they  should 
recall,  to  accident,  and  fondly  imagine  that  we  are  teach- 
ing number.  As  well  might  we  try  to  teach  the  facts  in 
botany  without  plants,  in  zoology  without  animals, 
form  without  forms,  and  color  without  colors,  as  to 
teach  number  without  numbers^of  objects.  All  primary 
ideas  of  number  and  their  relations,  must  be  obtained 


loo  NOTES  01^    TALKS  OJST   TEACHING, 

immediately  through  the  senses,  and  by  their  repeated 
limitations  as  numbers  of  things,  as  to  how  many. 

The  first  step  in  teaching  number  is,  to  ascertain,  by 
careful  examination,  just  how  much  the  child  knows  of 
number — /.<?,,  just  his  acquired  power  of  limiting  of 
objects  of  the  same  kind,  to  how  many  ;  just  how 
many  limitations  of  this  kind  he  has  acquired.  His 
knowledge  of  number,  has  been  acquired  through  some 
necessity  of  limiting  the  number  of  objects  he  handles  or 
sees.  Thus  a  child  in  the  kindergarten,  who  is  constant- 
ly handling  objects  —  splints,  pieces  of  paper,  blocks, 
etc.,  placing  them  in  different  forms,  such  as  triangles, 
squares,  oblongs,  &c.,  is  gaining  unconsciously,  in  the 
best  possible  way,  knowledge  of  number.  The  child's 
real  knowledge  of  number,  consists  in  recognizing 
numbers  of  things  at  sight.  Ability  to  count  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  true  knowledge  of  numbers  of 
things.  Counting  is  generally  ordinal  ;  his  four  or  five 
is  apt  to  be  nothing  but  the  fourth  or  fifth.  Just  what 
he  does  know,  is  the  first  question  to  be  answered  by 
the  teacher.  He  may  know  numbers  without  knowing 
their  names  or  the  words  that  recall  them.  It  would 
not  be  fair,  then,  to  gauge  his  knowledge  of  number,  by 
asking  him  to  bring  you  three^  four^  or  more  things. 
Hold  up  three  objects  and  say,  "  Bring  me  so  many,'* 
is  the  first  and  easiest  test.  If  this  test  is  successful, 
hold  up  a  number  of  objects  (not  more  than  four),  and 
say,  *'  Bring  me — "  [naming  the  number].  Third 
test,  hold  up  a  number  of  objects  and  ask,  "How 
many  ?"  Fourth,  request  the  child  to  bring  you  so 
many,  giving  the  number  without  showing  the  object. 


NUMBER.  101 

When  you  have  ascertained  just  what  the  child 
knows  of  number,  begin  there.  From  repeated  tests, 
given  by  myself,  and  by  teachers  under  my  supervision, 
the  average  child  of  five,  or  even  six  years  of  age,  does 
not  know  three,  when  he  enters  the  school-room.  The 
reason  for  this,  as  I  have  before  intimated,  is  not  far  to 
seek.  It  can  be  found  in  the  fact,  that  he  has  not  been 
led  to  limit  objects  in  the  definite  way  required  by 
number.  The  teacher  should  know  exactly  the  facts 
that  the  child  must  acquire  in  order  to  know  number 
comprehensively.  That  is,  just  what  separations  and 
unions  of  numbers  cover  the  whole  ground.  These  facts 
can  be  briefly  stated  thus  :  First,  the  equal  numbers  in 
a  number,  the  equal  numbers  that  make  a  number  ; 
second,  the  equal  parts  of  a  number  ;  and  third,  any  two 
unequal  numbers  in  a  number,  and  any  two  unequal 
numbers  that  make  a  number.  This  applies  to  numbers 
from  one  to  twenty  inclusive.  These  facts  should  be 
recognized  by  the  child,  without  the  slightest  hesitation^  on 
the  presentation  of  objects,  and  should  be  recalled  in 
the  same  manner,  on  hearing,  or  seeing  the  language 
that  represents  them.  I  wish  to  emphasize  this  point, 
that  the  facts  should  be  known  without  the  slightest 
hesitation.  That  which  is  learned  should  be  sunk  into 
automatic  action.  That  teaching  which  leaves  the  child 
a  prey  to  helpless  counting  of  fingers,  when  he  wishes 
to  reach  a  fact,  is  very  poor  indeed.  The  struggle  of 
education  is  essentially  for  freedom — /.<?.,  the  mind 
should  be  freed  by  proper  repetitions  and  drill,  so  that 
petty  details  may  be  left  behind,  in  order  that  power 
may  be  concentrated  upon  the  higher  step.     For   in- 


102  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

Stance,  in  solving  a  problem,  the  whole  power  of  the 
mind  should  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  exact  rela- 
tions of  the  numbers  of  things,  free  entirely  from  calcu- 
lation ;  because  the  calculation  needed  has  been  so 
thoroughly  mastered,  that  it  becomes  secondary  and  en- 
tirely subordinate,  requiring  simply  automatic  action. 
Therefore  you  will  see  of  what  exceeding  importance  it 
is,  that  the  facts,  step  by  step,  should  be  thoroughly 
acquired  once,  and  forever. 


TALK  XVI. 

NUMBER,  CONTINUED. 

The  almost  hopeless  confusion  in  their  knowledge  of 
arithmetic,  that  we  find  in  older  pupils,  is  owing  in  greater 
part  to  the  attempt  to  teach  too  much  during  the  first 
year.  I  have  seen,  many  times,  fifty,  or  even  one  hun- 
dred, laid  down  in  the  course  of  study  to  be  taught.  I 
have  tried  during  the  last  eleven  years,  to  teach  number 
to  little  folks  ;  and  I  have  never  yet  succeeded  in  teach- 
ing, nor  have  I  ever  seen  ten^  really  taught  during  the  first 
year.  I  am  well  aware  that  many  good  teachers  argue, 
that  by  constant  repetition  of  the  language,  without  re- 
gard to  what  the  language  expresses,  fifty,  or  even  one 
hundred  may  be  taught — i,e,y  the  child,  by  unceasing 
drill  may  repeat  a  great  quantity  of  gibberish,  that  to  the 
casual  observer  may  seem  to  be  a  valuable  result.  Ask 
these  children  to  verify  one  of  their  voluble  sentences,  by 
showing  the  real  relations  of  numbers  of  things,  that  the 
sentence  was  made  to  represent,  and  you  see,  at  once, 
that  they  have  spent  much  valuable  time  in  learning  an 
unknown  language.  The  same  teachers  argue  that  the 
child  cannot  reason,  and  therefore  he  must  be  taught 
the  language,  before  the  things.  All  this  unreason, 
arises  from  the  attempt,  that  tradition  forces  upon  us, 
to  teach  far  more  than  the  child  can  learn.     There  is  no 


104  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

time  in  the  child's  life  when  he  cannot  see,  judge,  gen- 
eralize, and  imagine,  providing  the  work  is  adapted  to 
his  mental  capacity.  It  is  this  lack  of  adaptation,  which 
leads  to  this  erratic  theory,  and  ruinous  practice.  Give 
the  child  time  to  grow,  and  wait  patiently  until  the 
germs  of  power  burst  out  of  their  fruitful  soil  of  un- 
consciousness. 

Teach  each  number  as  a  whole,  as  you  teach  every- 
thing within  the  sense-grasp.  When  the  idea  of  a  num- 
ber is  in  the  mind  as  a  whole,  the  tendency  of  the 
mental  power  awakened,  by  the  whole,  is  to  go  to  the 
parts.  We  can  only  analyze  that  which  is  in  the  mind. 
Forced  analysis,  before  the  object  is  clear  in  the  mind, 
generates  weakness.  Let  the  child  discover  everything 
he  can  in  a  number,  and  discover  it  for  himself,  and 
by  himself.  If,  for  instance,  he  is  learning  4  ;  he  has  al- 
ready learned  i,  2,  and  3  ;  and  by  skilful  leading  he  can 
discover  the  i*s,  the  2's,  the  3  and  i,  and  i  and  3,  he 
finds  in  4. 

There  are  teachers  who  argue,  that  an  attempt  to  teach 
the  four  operations  at  the  same  time,  confuses  the  child. 
It  would,  no  doubt,  if  the  language  alone  were  learned, 
without  regard  to  the  thought  which  that  language  ex- 
presses. But  let  us  see.  I  hold  up  four  blocks,  sepa- 
rated into  2's. 

What  do  you  see  ?  You  say,  "  Two  and  two  are  four," 
or  in  other  language,  **  Two  twos  are  four,"  **  There 
are  two  twos  in  four,"  ''  Four  less  two  is  two."  Which 
fact  do  you  see  first  ?  I  have  never  had  a  class  who 
agreed  upon  this.  I  hardly  know  myself.  It  is  logical 
to  suppose,  that  we  must  see  the  separation,  before  we 


NUMBER,   CONTINUED,  105 

can  see  the  combination.  No  ;  we  must  see  the  whole 
before  the  part.  It  is  the  old  question  of  trying  to  sep- 
arate synthesis  from  analysis.  I  am  inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  synthesize  without 
analyzing,  or  vice  versa.  The  synthesis  of  units  should 
sink,  as  quickly  as  possible,  into  unconscious  acts  and 
not  be  kept  alive  by  counting.  But  I  think  the  proof  is 
positive,  that  if  we  see  two  twos  in  four,  we  also  see  [at 
the  same  time]  that  two  twos  are  four.  That  three  and 
two  are  five,  we  see  at  the  same  time  that  we  do,  that  five 
less  two  is  three,  and  five  less  three  is  two.  Now,  instead 
of  confusing  the  mind,  correlative  relations  mutually  as- 
sist each  other  in  comprehending  each  relation.  To  spend 
a  long  time  in  adding  numbers,  without  noticing  con- 
sciously the  separations  ;  follow  that  by  a  long  term  of 
subtracting  ;  after  which  teach  multiplying  and  divid- 
ing ;  produces,  I  think,  the  inextricable  confusion  re- 
garding number,  that  I  have  never  failed  to  find  in 
grammar  grade  classes.  The  same  theory  carried  out 
in  botany,  would  take  one  part  of  the  plant — the  leaves, 
for  instance  —  and  teach  that,  without  regard  to  the 
whole  plant  ;  and  then  returning,  teach  the  bark,  then 
the  stem,  and  so  on.  This  manner  of  teaching  belongs, 
not  to  a  primary,  but  to  a  secondary  stage  of  work. 
One  important  point  I  wish  to  make  very  clear  to  you, 
because  in  most  English  arithmetics,  the  point  has  been 
sadly  misunderstood.  I  have  said  that  the  facts  to  be 
learned,  are  ;  the  equal  numbers  in  a  number,  and  the 
equal  parts  of  a  number.  I  hold  up  four  blocks  ;  you 
readily  see  that  there  are  two  twos  in  four  ;  that  one  half 
of  four  is  two.  Compare  the  two  twos  (2  2*s  =  4)  in  four, 


Io6  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

with,  one  half  of  four  is  two  ones  (2  I's  «=-  2).  Now,  in 
most  of  the  arithmetics  published  in  this  country 
and  Great  Britain,  both  of  these  radically  different  re- 
lations, are  represented  by  one  written  sentence,  viz.; 
4-^2.  Arithmetic  is  an  exact  science  and  it  is  ab- 
solutely indispensable  that  it  have  an  exact  language. 
I  cannot  conceive  why  these  two  relations  have  been 
almost  totally  unrecognized  by  book-makers.  The 
only  way  I  can  account  for  it  is,  that  the  language 
of  arithmetic  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  relations 
of  the  signs,  and  not  the  numbers  of  things.  Find- 
ing the  equal  parts  of  a  whole  number,  which  I  would 
like  to  call  partition^  in  contradistinction  to  the  equal 
parts  of  a  unit  (fractions),  is  not,  perhaps,  one  of 
the  simplest  processes.  But  it  may  successfully  begin 
when  the  child  is  learning  four,  and  the  two  opera- 
tions of  measuring  by  equal  numbers,  (division)  and 
finding  the  equal  parts  of  a  number,  should  be  kept 
entirely  distinct  from  each  other,  in  the  child's  mind,  as 
they  really  are,  or  will  be,  unless  his  mind  is  confused 
by  an  ambiguous  sentence.  Discriminate  very  sharply 
between  learning  number,  and  learning  the  language  of 
number.  The  former  must  precede  the  latter.  If  I  am 
any  judge  of  results,  nine  tenths  of  the  teaching  of 
arithmetic  consists  in  teaching  figures  alone,  with  little 
or  no  regard  to  numbers.  This  you  may  easily  test  by 
asking  pupils  to  verify  with  objects  a  few  sentences  like 
these : 

i  °^  i  f  -^  i^  ^^^• 

The  language  of  arithmetic  is  made  up  of  idioms,  that 
have  little  or  no  analogy  with  the  rest  of  the  language. 


NUMBER,   CONTINUED.  107 

For  instance,  the  word  from^  in  subtraction,  is  used  in 
arithmetic  only  in  the  sense  of  out  of,  Tirnes^  in  multipli- 
cation is  a  misleading  word.  Bear  in  mind,  then,  that  in 
the  first  steps  of  teaching  number,  the  ideas  of  number 
and  their  relations  are  the  things  to  be  taught.  Allow  the 
child  to  use  his  own  idioms  to  express  what  he  sees, 
until  the  ideas  become  fixed  in  the  mind.  Then  gradu- 
ally introduce,  by  using  them  yourself  (do  not  require 
the  pupils  to  use  them  at  first),  the  conventional  idioms 
peculiar  to  arithmetic.  Thus,  these  forms  of  speech 
become  gradually  associated  with  the  thought.  There 
is  no  danger  of  using  the  new  terms,  when  they  recall 
exactly  what  they  mean. 

There  is  another  important  point  in  the  language 
of  arithmetic.  When  the  child  enters  school,  he  has 
clear  ideas  of  the  spoken  words,  such  as  "  hat," 
**  mat,**  **  cat,'*  *'  box,'*  etc.,  with  which  written  words 
are  to  be  associated.  He  has  been  gathering  these 
ideas  through  five  or  six  years  of  constant  mental 
exercise,  but,  as  I  have  shown,  he  has  very  few,  if  any, 
clear  ideas  of  number.  Ideas  grow  very  slowly.  It  takes 
a  long  time,  with  many  acts  of  perception,  to  fix  one 
idea  clearly  in  the  mind.  It  is  of  immense  importance 
that  these  ideas  come  into  the  mind  so  distinctly,  that 
they  can  be  used  in  thinking.  The  oral  language  must 
be  used  to  assist  in  gaining  the  ideas,  and  to  express 
them.  But  if  we  endeavor  to  teach  both  forms  of  lan- 
guage, the  written  and  the  oral,  at  the  same  time  the  all- 
important  work  of  idea  growth  is  going  on,  do  we  not 
try  to  do  too  much  ?  Will  not  the  written  figures  be 
taken,  as  they  constantly  are,  for  that  which  they  should 


Io8  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

represent  ?  I  would  defer  the  teaching  of  written  figures, 
for  this  and  other  reasons,  until  at  least  ten,  is  thor- 
oughly taught.  Then,  figures  may  be  taught,  as  words 
and  sentences  in  reading  are,  by  associating  them  di- 
rectly with  that  which  they  represent. 

I  will  now  try  to  give  some  indications  of  the  step-by- 
step  plan,  by  which  numbers  may  be  taught.  First,  teach 
the  number  as  a  whole  ;  use  a  great  variety  of  objects 
appealing  to  sight,  touch,  and  hearing  ;  second,  lead 
the  child  to  discover  every  fact  for  himself,  giving  each 
one  a  number  of  objects  ;  third,  after  the  facts  have  been 
repeatedly  discovered  by  the  child,  fix  them  in  the 
mind  by  constant  drill.  Let  the  child  take  the  num- 
ber of  objects,  and  show  you  rapidly,  what  he  can  see 
in  it.  Show  the  objects  yourself,  and  have  the  pupils 
tell  what  they  see.  Then,  without  objects,  question 
pupils  sharply  upon  the  facts,  and  have  them  answer 
without  hesitation.  Next,  apply  the  numbers  learned, 
in  all  sorts  of  practical  ways,  by  means  of  little  prob- 
lems. Have  pupils  make  problems  for  themselves.  In 
the  teaching  of  number,  use  all  the  common  weights, 
measures,  money,  that  come  within  the  scope  of  the 
number  taught.  Teach  one  number  at  a  time,  and  have 
the  pupils  learn  the  facts  in  that  number,  before  another 
is  taught.  Review  continually.  Judge  of  your  prog- 
ress by  the  increasing  power  of  attention  on  the  part 
of  your  pupils. 

When  should  we  stop  using  objects  ?  I  have  but 
one  answer  to  this  question.  Cease  using  any  ob- 
ject, when  it  can  be  thought  of,  and  used  without 
the  presence  of  the  object.     This  is  a  general  rule,  and 


NUMBER,  CONTINUED,  109 

applies  to  all  object  teaching.  When  children  can  think 
of  the  things,  or  qualities  required  for  the  desired  men- 
tal action,  without  the  presence  of  objects,  their  after- 
use  cultivates  weakness  rather  than  strength.  That  is, 
when  the  mind  has  abstracted  the  required  ideas  of 
number,  and  their  relations,  from  numbers  of  objects, 
then,  the  real  abstract  number  may  be  used.  The 
abstract  number  that  cannot  be  defined,  or  thought  of, 
is  a  snare  and  a  delusion,  and  has  caused  more  vague, 
meaningless,  stupid  work  in  arithmetic,  than  the  teach- 
ing of  the  names  of  the  letters  has  in  reading.  We  say, 
for  example,  that  the  multiplier  is  abstract  :  2  times  3 
means  two  threes.  Two  is  a  limiting  adjective,  and 
limits  threes.  It  has  a  definite  meaning,  and  to  say 
that  it  is  abstract,  in  the  sense  given  by  most  arithmetics 
to  that  miserable  word,  is  nonsense. 

Let  me  say,  in  conclusion  to  this  talk,  that  if  you  have 
been,  like  myself,  trained  in  figure  work,  instead  of  the 
study  of  number,  I  should  advise  you  to  lay  aside,  for  a 
time,  all  you  ever  thought  you  knew  about  arithmetic, 
and  begin  its  careful,  thoughtful  study  over  again, 
[using  numbers  of  objects  all  the  cime],  with  a  little 
child  to  lead  you. 


TALK   XVII. 

ARITHMETIC. 

When  ten  has  been  thoroughly  taught,  begin  the 
teaching  of  the  written  language  of  number.  The  proc- 
ess of  teaching  figures,  is  precisely  the  same  as  in  teach- 
ing written  words.  First,  show  a  number  of  objects, 
and  then  write  (on  the  blackboard)  the  sign  ;  second, 
write  the  sign,  and  ask  pupils  to  show  that  number  of 
objects  ;  third,  show  a  number  of  objects,  and  have 
pupils  write  the  sign  ;  fourth,  send  the  class  to  the 
board,  then  show  numbers  of  objects  one  after  the 
other,  and  have  pupils  write  the  sign  ;  fifth,  show  iii, 
II,  thus  ;  then  change  to  iiiii,  and  say,  **  Write  that.'* 
They  write,  "  3  and  2  are  5;'*  sixth,  teacher  erases  and^ 
and  writes  +>  ^^^  and  writes  ==.  **  Now  read  it  the  same 
way  as  before."  Teach  the  signs,  =,  +>  — ->  X,  -^, 
very  carefully,  one  at  a  time,  and  then  review,  by  writing 
them  together.     Show  objects  (as  in  oral  teaching),  and 


have    pupils  write    the 
like  the  following  : 

answers.     Introduce 

exercises 

I 

8-2    =4 
4      2'«=8 

2 

8-^2   = 
4      2'«= 

3 

8-       =4 
4         ^  =  8 

4 
-2    =4 

2'^=  8 

5+4=9 
8-5    =3 
4X2=8 

5+4   = 

8-5    = 
4X2    = 

5  +       =9 
8-       =3 
4X       =8 

+  4=9 
-5    =3 
X2    =8 

ARITHMETIC,  III 

Then  have  pupils  erase  the  answers,  (see  2)  and  write 
the  answers  rapidly.  Have  them  erase  answers  again, 
and  read  the  columns.  Have  them  erase  second  line, 
(see  3)  then  fill  up  the  columns.  Have  them  erase  again, 
and  read.  Then  let  them  erase  the  first  line,  (see  4)  and 
fill  in  the  answers.  Use  in  these  exercises,  all  the  forms 
of  stating  processes,  to  be  found  in  arithmetical  calcula- 
tion ;  the  pupils  learning  them,  by  seeing  the  relations 
which  they  express.  In  division,  for  example,  8  -f-  4  =  2, 
4)8(2,  4\8;  in  multiplication,  2X3  =  6,  3.     When  these 

h  i 

6 

forms  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind,  give  the  same 
exercises,  without  using  objects.  From  10  proceed, 
number  by  number,  to  the  development  of  20,  using 
both  oral  and  written  work.  For  reviews,  give  an  ex- 
ercise like  this  (orally),  having  pupils  write  out  answers 
upon  slates  or  board,  in  columns,  without  hesitation  :  7+5  ; 
54-3  ;  4's  in  12  ;  10  —  7  ;  ^of  9  ;  6X2.  Let  pupils  change 
slates,  and  correct  ;  the  teacher  reading  the  answers. 
Train  pupils  to  make  good  figures,  and  to  arrange  their 
work  neatly  upon  slates,  blackboard,  or  paper.  Never 
allow  a?iy  careless  work. 

These  exercises,  however,  form  only  a  part  of  the 
work  which  should  be  done.  The  oral  and  written 
work  should  go  hand  in  hand.  Calculation  should  be 
followed  by  applied  numbers  ;  using,  as  in  oral  work, 
weights,  measures,  and  money.  Have  pupils  buy  and 
sell,  and  keep  an  account  of  their  trades,  on  slate  and 
paper.  Give  them  a  great  many  little  problems,  that 
will  test  their  thinking  powers.     Have  them  write  their 


112  NOTES  OF    TALKS   ON    TEACHING. 

own  problems,  (language  lessons).  Write  on  the  board 
7+4  ;  3X5  ;  i  of  12  ;  i6-f-4  ;  and  have  them  write 
problems  on  their  slates,  using  these  numbers  and 
their  relations.  Write  examples  for  them  on  the 
board.  Have  them  read  them  (reading  lessons).  A 
Primary  Arithmetic  may  be  introduced,  [like  the 
**  Franklin"]  as  a  reading  book,  at  this  stage.  The 
squares  of  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  may  be  taught,  by  draw- 
ing the  squares  on  the  board.  Have  children  make 
the  tables — multiplication  and  division  ;  products  not 
exceeding  the  number  taught.  I  believe,  when  20 
is  thoroughly  taught,  and  all  the  facts  are  known  with- 
out the  slightest  hesitation,  and  when  the  child  has 
formed  the  habit  of  using  figures,  simply  to  represent 
numbers  of  things,  in  such  a  way,  that  the  figures,  in 
any  and  all  of  their  relations,  will  readily  recall  the 
numbers  in  their  relations  ;  that  more  than  half  of  the 
science  of  arithmetic,  is  within  the  grasp  of  the  pupils. 
This  work  should  occupy  the  time,  at  least,  of  the  first 
two  years.  It  may  be  done,  I  think,  in  one  year,  if  the 
pupils  have  had  thorough  Kindergarten  training. 

I  have  not  time  to  speak  of  the  steps  from  20  to  100. 
For  this  work,  I  will  refer  you  to  the  Arithmetical 
Charts,  soon  to  be  published  by  Cowperthwait  &  Co. 
Three  years  at  least,  should  be  allowed  for  the  thorough 
teaching  of  100. 

I  am  often  asked  the  question,  **  When  should  the 
use  of  objects  cease,  in  the  development  of  number  ;  that 
is,  in  teaching  a  new  number  ?"  It  is  clear  to  my  mind, 
that  when  pupils  can  analyze  a  number,  [/.<f.,  find  the 
equal    numbers    in    a    number,  the  equal    parts   of   a 


A  RITHME  TIC.  1 1 3 

number,  any  two  unequal  numbers  into  which  a  num- 
ber can  be  separated,  or  that  make  a  number,]  without 
the  presence  of  the  objects,  the  time  has  come  when 
they  should  not  be  used.  Whether  this  be  at  10,  or 
20,  I  know  not.  I  shall  have  to  teach  number,  to 
little  children  a  few  years  longer,  before  I  shall  be  able 
to  find  this  important  fact.  This  rule,  however,  ap- 
plies to  all  teaching.  Set  the  child  free  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible ;  train  him  to  help  himself  ;  to  use  that  which  is 
in  his  mind  with  the  slightest  external  stimulus  ;  but 
above  all  things,  be  sure  that  he  has  the  right  mental 
objects  to  use.     These  must  come  in  through  the  senses. 

I  have  tried  to  give  you  an  outline,  of  how  children 
may  be  thoroughly  grounded  in  primary  arithmetic.  If 
you  fully  comprehend,  and  carry  out  this  plan,  very 
little  need  be  said  about  higher  or  Written  Arithmetic, 
as  it  is  usually  called.  For  there  is  absolutely  nothing 
new  to  be  learned  in  all  arithmetical  teaching,  except 
the  processes  which  large  numbers  involve,  such  as  is 
found  in  the  additions,  multiplications,  subtractions,  and 
divisions,  which  cannot  be  performed  without  the  use  of 
slate  and  pencil.  All  these  processes  should  be  dis- 
covered by  pupils. 

The  tendency  of  modern  teaching  has  been,  to  make 
very  simple  things  complex  and  difficult.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  science  of  teaching,  will  bring  us  back  to  the 
grand  simplicity,  characteristic  of  true  art.  The  com- 
plexity, of  which  I  speak,  can  arise  in  no  other  way,  than 
from  a  superficial  understanding  of  arithmetic.  That 
is,  it  consists  in  taking  the  language  for  the  thing,  and 
making  rules,  and  definitions,  and  terms,  which  appear 


114  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

entirely  new  to  both  teacher  and  pupil,  when  they  are 
simply  a  well-known  operation  under  a  new  name.  I 
have  shown  that  all  that  can  be  done  with  number,  con- 
sists totally,  of  separating  and  uniting  numbers.  Hence 
every  subject  in  arithmetic,  whether  it  be  fractions, 
decimals,  percentage,  interest,  or  cube-root — whether 
the  numbers  be  large  or  small,  is  only  a  simple  continu- 
ance of  what  the  child  has  already  learned  ;  a  new 
application  of  the  same  thing.  Let  the  teacher  follow 
the  great  pedagogical  rule  of  Pestalozzi.  Teach  the 
idea  before  the  word,  the  thought  before  the  expression, 
and  all  will  go  well.  When  a  new  subject  is  begun, 
fractions,  for  example,  let  the  pupils  discover  what 
fractions  are,  by  means  of  objects  ;  show  them  the  frac- 
tions ;  have  them  write  the  signs  upon  the  blackboard. 
Follow  the  usual  course  in  teaching  fractions,  and  you 
will  readily  see  that  pupils  can  be  led  to  discover  for  them- 
selves, a  mixed  number,  by  showing  them  by  objects  a 
whole  number  and  a  fraction  ;  an  improper  fraction,  by 
separating  a  whole  number  into  equal  parts.  That  the 
parts  must  be  equal,  in  order  to  add  or  subtract ;  and 
when  they  are  equal,  they  are  added  and  subtracted  pre- 
cisely like  whole  numbers  ;  and  so  on,  step  by  step,  they 
may  be  led  to  see  the  relation  of  the  different  equal  parts 
of  units.  That  is,  the  thoughts  can  be  evolved,  by  means 
of  objects,  before  the  sentence  is  written.  If  you  happen 
to  have  a  class  that  have  been  through  the  hook^  and  know 
all  about  fractions,  write  a  simple  fraction  upon  the 
board,  and  ask  them  to  verify  it  with  objects,  i.e. — ask 
them  to  show  you  just  what  the  word  or  sentence 
means.     In  all  my   experience,  I  have  never  failed   to 


ARITHMETIC,  115 

bring  about  a  commendable  degree  of  humility,  which 
is  very  useful  when  turning  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
afresh  upon  an  old  and  almost  worn-out  subject,  that 
students  are  apt  to  imagine  they  have  thoroughly 
mastered. 

I  cannot  urge  you  too  strongly,  as  teachers,  to  go 
back  to  the  study  of  the  real  meaning,  of  all  you  think 
you  know  about  arithmetic.  My  advice  comes  from  my 
own  experience  in  trying  to  teach  this  subject.  Finding 
that  I  knew  figures  well,  and  not  numbers  of  things,  I 
have  been  obliged  to  go  back  to  the  objects,  in  order  to 
find  just  what  the  figures  in  their  relations  mean.  My 
second  reason  for  this  advice  is,  that  I  find  pupils  in 
advanced  grades,  unable  to  reason  in  arithmetic.  Rea- 
soning, let  me  repeat,  must  he  upon  things,  and  not 
words. 

The  question  has  been  often  asked  me,  *'  How  much 
analysis  would  you  have  ?'*  By  analysis,  many  teachers 
mean,  the  repetition  of  a  set  formula  that  has  been  learn- 
ed "by  heart."  That  is,  a  child  learns  a  pattern,  by 
which  all  examples  of  the  same  kind  may  be  done,  with 
the  slightest  possible  mental  action  on  the  part  of  the 
learner.  This  is  not  analysis,  though  it  is  often  called 
by  that  name.  It  is  pattern-learning,  and  is  simply, 
imitation  carried  over  into  the  sacred  region  of  thought 
development  ;  and  it  effectually  prevents  the  growing  of 
any  original  or  creative  power.  Analysis,  is  the  dis- 
covery by  the  thinking  powers,  of  the  parts  of  a  whole, 
which  must  be,  of  course,  clearly  in  the  mind,  before  its 
parts  can  be  mentally  seen.  Another  difficulty  in  this 
so-called  elaborate  analysis  is,  that  it  consumes  much 


Il6  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

valuable  time.  For  instance:  "If  one  apple  costs 
three  cents,  what  will  four  apples  cost  ?"  (Child.)  **  If 
one  apple  costs  three  cents,  four  apples,  will  cost  four 
times  as  many  cents  as  one  apple  will  cost.  Therefore, 
four  apples  will  cost  four  times  three  cents.  Four 
times  three  cents,  are  twelve  cents.  Therefore;  if  one 
apple  costs  three  cents,  four  apples  will  cost  twelve 
cents."  I  think  I  have  not  put  in  all  the  words,  that 
can  be  put  into  this  complex,  and  useless  explanation  ; 
still  I  have  tried  to  illustrate  what  I  have  very  often 
heard.  The  example  given,  is  the  application  of  a  gener- 
al fact,  which  the  child  is  learning.  If  the  previous 
work  has  been  correct,  all  the  child  needs  to  say,  is, 
**  Twelve  cents  ;"  and  go  on  performing  a  dozen  exam- 
ples, instead  of  agonizing  over  the  stiff  formula  of  one. 
Let  me  not  be  misunderstood.  The  pupil's  attention 
should  continually  be  turned  back,  upon  that  which  has 
come  into  their  minds  as  wholes.  We  learn  the  science 
of  arithmetic,  not  for  the  purpose  of  knowing  arith- 
metic, but  that  the  study  of  the  subject  may  increase 
mental  power.  The  trouble  is,  that  we  fix  our  minds  on 
the  quantity  to  be  learned,  and  not  on  the  value  the 
things  learned,  has  in  mental  growth. 

Now,  there  is  not  one  thing  in  the  science  of  numbers, 
no  definition,  rule,  or  process,  that  cannot  be  dis- 
covered by  the  child,  under  the  proper  leading  of  a  skil. 
ful  teacher,  who  knows  what  she  is  teaching.  The 
pupils  can  discover  in  this  way,  every  thought^  the  lan- 
guage, of  course,  must  be  given  them.  Definitions, 
rules,  processes,  and  problems,  may  be  an  excellent 
means  of  mental  growth,  if  each  and  all  are  discovered 


ARITHMETIC.  117 

by  the  pupils  for  themselves,  and  by  themselves.  They 
are  generally,  as  learned  and  applied  in  the  pattern 
fashion,  a  great  means  of  concealing  thought,  and  in- 
creasing stupidity.  The  arithmetic  of  the  future,  will 
contain,  not  one  rule,  definition,  or  explanation  of  a 
process.  *'  Education  is  the  generation  of  power," 
*'  Never  do  anything  for  a  pupil,  that  he  can  be  led  to 
do  for  himself."  How  often  these  old  truths  have  been 
repeated,  and  still,  one  of  the  great  evils,  if  not  the 
greatest,  is,  that  we  do  too  much  for  the  pupils.  In- 
stead of  leaving  them  to  help,  and  control  themselves, 
instead  of  cultivating  their  powers  of  attention  and 
concentration,  we  try  to  make  them  the  passive,  innocent 
recipients  of  stores  of  knowledge,  without  the  move- 
ment, on  their  part,  of  a  mental  muscle.  Explanation 
is  one  of  the  very  best  means  of  preventing  mental 
action. 

Train  a  boy  to  be  an  athlete  ;  lift  him  over  every 
bar,  carry  him  up  the  ladders,  defend  him  with  your 
fists,  and  then  send  him  out  into  the  world  to  fight  his 
own  battles  !  This  is  exactly  what  we  do,  when  we  make 
everything  plain  by  ex/to'/^ation.  I  have  heard  the  ob- 
jection made  by  teachers,  when  I  have  broached  this 
cardinal  doctrine  of  the  New  Education,  that  it  takes 
too  much  time,  to  lead  a  child  to  discover  everything  for 
himself.  Education  is  the  generation  of  power  ;  and  the 
generation  of  power,  in  the  right  way,  is  the  very 
highest  economy  of  which  man  can  conceive.  We  learn 
to  do  by  doing,  to  hear  by  hearing,  and  to  think  by 
thinking.  We  see  with  all  we  have  seen,  we  do  with 
all    we  have    done^   and    we  think    with  all    we  have 


Il8  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

thought.  The  greatest  delight  of  all  teaching  is,  to 
place  the  difficulty  squarely  before  the  pupils,  [generally 
by  means  of  objects,]  and  then  let  them  work  it  out  for 
themselves.  If  they  go  wrong,  do  not  tell  tliem  they 
are  wrong,  but  ask  the  question  that  will  set  them  right. 
Time  is  nothing,  when  power  is  growing !  Look  on 
this  picture,  and  then  on  that.  A  class  listening  to  the 
verbose  explanation  of  an  enthusiastic  pourer-out  of 
knowledge,  watch  their  faces  as  they  are  repeating  a 
rote-learned  definition,  rule,  or  formula,  or  are  waiting 
for  their  mothers — I  beg  your  pardon — their  teachers, 
to  put  the  food  into  their  open  mouths.  Or,  if  you 
please,  behold  this  class  ;  led  by  a  teacher  inspired  by 
the  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject,  who  has  the 
thought  distinctly  in  her  own  mind,  who  is  trying 
dextrously  to  lead  her  class  to  know  what  she  knows, 
and  is  very  glad  to  have  them  discover  something  that 
she  doesn't  know.  One  class,  solemnly  marches  to 
their  goal  of  quantity,  under  the  banner  of  rewards  and 
punishments,  per  cents,  merits,  checks,  or  the  rod.  The 
other,  all  aglow  with  eagerness  and  zeal,  faces  flushed 
in  their  earnest  desire  to  discover  the  truth,  fearful  that 
some  one  will  tell  them,  what  they  wish  to  find  out  for 
themselves,  such  children  are  gathering  strength  at 
every  step,  and  learning  to  do  the  work  the  world  is 
most  in  need  of. 

My  dear  teachers,  fill  yourselves  full  of  the  subject 
you  would  teach,  know  its  nature,  its  length,  breadth, 
and  depth,  and  then  with  the  knowledge  of  the  learning 
child,  lead  him  to  discover,  step  by  step,  what  you  have 
discovered.     I  promise  you,  that  in  such  work  you  will 


ARITHMETIC.  1 19 

find  for  yourselves,  a  mental  growth  on  your  own  part, 
that  can  scarcely  be  found  anywhere  else,  and  an  un- 
equalled joy,  in  leading  little  ones  to  fulfil  the  grand 
destiny  for  which  God  intended  them. 


TALK   XVIII. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

A  DESCRIPTION  of  the  surfacc  of  the  earth  and  its  in- 
habitants is,  perhaps,  as  comprehensive  a  definition  of 
geography  as  can  be  found.  A  description  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  consists  of  a  knowledge  of  the  struct- 
ure of  the  outside  of  this  ball  on  which  we  live  ;  this 
structure  consisting  of  slopes,  relatively  gradual  and 
abrupt,  that  vary  its  outline  •  the  surface  being  not 
that  of  a  perfectly  smooth  sphere.  This  description  of 
the  surface  is  limited,  in  geography,  to  the  constructed 
merely,  and  not  the  construction.  The  construction 
applying  to  the  material,  is  the  realm  of  geology. 
We  have,  in  geography,  two  parts.  The  first,  per- 
tains to  the  superficial  structure  ;  the  second,  to  the 
people  who  live,  and  have  lived  upon  the  structure. 
We  have,  then,  the  stage  and  the  actors.  The  first,  is 
real,  or  structural  geography,  the  second,  history.  For 
history  has  to  do  with  all  that  men  have  done  in  the 
past,  and  all  they  are  doing  at  present. 

The  first  work  in  geography,  is  to  build  into  the 
mind,  by  means  of  the  imagination,  the  stage,  that  may 
afterward  be  filled  with  moving  and  acting  human 
beings.  We  can  teach  geography  by  means  of  maps,  so 
that  the  mii^d  will  rarely  go  beyond  the  map,  /,^.,  the 


GEOGRAPHY,  I2I 

world  and  all  it  contains,  is  limited  to  the  colored  sur- 
face of  a  piece  of  paper.  Now  the  map,  like  a  word, 
should  be  the  means  of  recalling  a  reality.  That  teach- 
ing of  geography,  which  does  not  take  the  student  be- 
yond the  representation  of  that  which  is  represented,  is 
manifestly  wrong.  The  description,  as  I  have  said,  of 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  must  be  of  mental  pictures  of 
the  forms  raised  above  a  perfectly  level  surface.  If  the 
surface  of  the  continent  were  like  that  of  the  ocean,  [of 
water],  a  particular  description  of  surface  would  be  im- 
possible. Varying  outlines,  then,  make  it  possible  for 
us  to  describe  the  surface  of  the  earth.  A  description 
of  the  various  and  varying  forms,  that  rise  above  the 
level  of  the  ocean,  is,  per  se^  a  description  of  the  earth's 
surface.  This  description  has  been  almost  entirely  over- 
looked, in  the  study  of  geography. 

The  structure  of  the  earth's  surface  should  be  studied, 
just  as  any  other  structure  or  form  is  studied.  Were 
I  to  ask  you  to  describe  a  house  that  you  have  seen,  you 
would  immediately  concentrate  your  mind  upon  a  men- 
tal picture  of  that  house.  You  would  tell  me  of  its 
height,  its  roof,  its  general  form,  of  its  doors  and  win- 
dows, and  so  on.  Just  in  this  way,  a  continental  struct- 
ure may,  and  should  be,  described.  These  varying 
forms  of  vertical  structure,  in  their  relations,  give  the 
character  to  a  continent  or  any  of  its  parts.  Let  us  look 
at  this  a  moment,  in  relation  to  memory.  All  that  we 
remember  must  be  located  in  space,  real  or  imaginary. 
The  more  distinct  the  locality  is,  in  the  mind,  the  more 
tenaciously  and  clearly  the  mind  holds  any  fact  in  re- 
lation to  the  locality.     The  more  character  there  is,  the 


122  NOTES   OF    TALKS   ON    TEACHING. 

more  pronounced  and  varying  the  slopes,  into  hills,  val- 
leys, coast-lines,  and  rivers,  the  easier  it  is,  to  fill  such 
localities  with  facts,  and  retain  them.  Our  knowledge 
of  locality,  upon  smooth  surfaces,  like  the  ocean,  is  very 
vague,  hanging  as  it  does  upon  imaginary  lines,  drawn 
from  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  I  can  make  my  mean- 
ing plain,  by  referring  to  the  method  of  the  modern 
historian,  or  novelist.  The  first  thing  to  be  done,  on  the 
part  of  either,  when  a  book  is  to  be  written,  is  to  care- 
fully prepare  the  terrain  upon  which  their  figures  have 
moved,  or  are  to  move.  Curtius,  the  famous  historian 
of  Greece,  has  given  us  in  the  first  pages  of  his  history, 
a  clear  picture  of  that  wonderful  peninsula.  When 
one  can  travel,  in  imagination,  all  over  that  country, 
can  see  Thermopylae,  and  Marathon,  can  climb  the 
Acropolis,  or  wander  over  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  can 
view  Sparta  in  all  its  surroundings,  he  is,  in  a  measure, 
ready  to  follow  the  fascinating  movements  of  the  char- 
acters, either  real  or  imaginary,  from  Hercules  to  Boz- 
zaris.  The  novelist,  with  a  freer  pen,  and  more  fanci- 
ful range  of  thought,  is  wont  to  describe  minutely  the 
landscape,  upon  which  he  designs  to  place  his  charac- 
ters. Test  yourselves  in  this  respect,  and  you  will  see 
better  what  I  mean.  Recall  the  farm  upon  which  you 
were  born  [if  you  were  so  fortunate],  or  any  other 
scene  that  is  fixed  in  your  mind  by  long  familiarity. 
How  from  each  tree,  running  stream,  valley,  or  hill, 
start  thousands  of  recollections,  bound  to  them  by  the 
great  law  of  association.  Were  I  to  tell  you  that  such 
and  such  changes  had  been  made,  a  house  built  here,  a 
road  there,  how  quickly  would  your  imagination  make 


GEOGRAPHY,  123 

a  picture  of  the  changes,  and  these  pictures  would  there- 
after be  held  firmly  in  your  memory.  Now,  what  the 
novelists  and  historians  do,  in  order  to  make  us  remem- 
ber their  stories  and  histories,  should  be  done  with 
the  structure  of  the  whole  earth,  and  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. So  that  cities,  political  divisions,  the  movem^ents 
of  men,  and  all  that  is  continually  moving  and  changing, 
may  be  retained  and  held,  in  the  forms  and  spaces  that 
do  not  change.  My  first  argument,  then,  for  the  teach- 
ing of  structural  geography,  is,  that  it  is  an  essential 
and  fixed  basis  for  the  memory  of  eternally  changing 
facts. 

The  character  of  the  vertical  forms  of  continents  de- 
termines their  horizontal  shape  or  outline.  This  is 
plainly  seen  in  the  relations  of  highlands  to  the  sea- 
coast.  The  vertical  forms,  also  determine  the  drainage 
of  a  continent.  The  immense  uplifted  masses  may  be 
called  the  bones,  or  framework,  the  drainage,  the  life- 
blood  of  continental  forms.  The  soft  earth  or  soil, 
worn  away  from  rocks^  that  gives  us  fertile  or  arable 
land,  is  deposited  by  the  drainage  of  varying  slopes. 
Thus,  you  see,  with  the  exception  of  the  important  ele- 
ment of  climate,  the  structure  limits  the  occupation, 
resources  of  food,  shelter,  clothing,  and  health  of  man. 
The  character  of  mankind  depends,  to  an  immense  de- 
gree, upon  the  character  and  position  of  these  structural 
forms.  Compare  North  America  with  Africa.  The 
one,  with  great  mountain  masses,  sloping  gradually 
down  to  lower  levels,  and  then  to  the  sea  ;  with  its  great 
navigable  rivers,  and  accessible  coast  ;  the  other,  with 
mountain   masses,   to  be   sure,  but   with   no   extensive 


124  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

gradual  slopes,  so  that  its  rivers  to  gain  their  outlets 
must  break  through  plateaus,  thus  obstructing  naviga- 
tion ;  and  we  have  a  picture  of  two  widely  different 
continental  forms.  They  are  the  extremes.  One,  with  the 
conditions  for  steadily  moving  arterial  blood,  like  the 
horse  ;  the  other,  for  the  stagnation  and  slowness  of  the 
tortoise.  The  greatness  of  nations,  may  be  traced  direct- 
ly to  the  structural  forms  upon  which  they  lived  and 
thrived.  Egypt,  with  its  narrow  strip  of  very  fertile 
land,  fed  by  the  Nile,  and  bounded  by  vast  deserts,  to 
keep  off  invaders.  Palestine  is  a  natural  fortress,  with 
its  great  wall  on  the  Jordan  side,  its  rocky  desert  on  the 
south,  but  with  one  weak  point,  the  fatal  plain  of 
Esdraelon.  Had  that  great  rift  in  the  earth's  crust, 
extending  from  the  sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea,  never 
been  made,  the  history  of  that  wonderful  and  powerful 
nation,  that  gave  us  the  foundation  for  our  religion, 
never  would  have  been.  The  Grecian  Peninsula,  had 
all  the  conditions  for  the  development  of  its  wonderful 
history. 

The  study  of  the  structure  of  the  earth'c.  surface,  forms 
the  natural  basis  of  the  study  of  all  other  Physical  Sci- 
ences. A  knowledge  of  the  surface,  is  the  elementary 
study  of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  leads  directly  to  Geol- 
ogy, and  that  to  Mineralogy.  Drainage,  determines  the 
soil,  and  upon  soil  and  climate  depends  vegetation  ;  thus 
leading  directly  to  Botany.  Upon  the  vegetation  depends 
animal  life,  the  study  of  which  gives  us  the  science  of 
Zoology.  The  movements  and  phenomena  pertaining 
to  structure,  give  us  both  Physics  and  Physical  Geog- 
raphy ;  the  measurement  of  form  and  movement  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  1 25 

earth,  Mathematical  Geography  ;  its  parts  and  composi- 
tion, Chemistry.  All  these  sciences  are  the  direct  out- 
growth of  structural  geography.  Structural  geog- 
raphy, then,  may  be  called  the  elementary  science, 
upon  which  all  other  sciences  are  founded.  This  branch 
has  hitherto  been  almost  entirely  overlooked  or  neg- 
lected. Indeed,  I  am  obliged  to  invent  a  new  name  for 
this  new  science — Structural  Geography. 

Humboldt,  by  his  careful  observations  and  generali- 
zations, made  it  possible  for  Carl  Ritter  to  discover  a 
science  of  geography.  The  study  of  geography,  previous 
to  Ritter's  time,  consisted  of  the  learning  of  a  conglom- 
erated mass  of  isolated  and  disconnected  facts,  that  must 
be  held  in  the  mind  by  the  sheer  force  of  verbal 
memory.  The  progress  of  the  new  science  has  been, 
and  is,  exceedingly  slow.  Guyot,  the  pupil  and  disci- 
ple of  Ritter,  made  for  us  his  unequalled  Common 
School  Geography.  But  the  book  has  been  a  failure, 
and  is  now  out  of  print,  because  teachers  who  had  been 
taught  in  the  old  way  could  not  comprehend  its  great 
beauty. 


TALK   XIX. 

GEOGRAPHY,    CONTINUED. 

In  my  last  talk,  I  tried  to  show  that  structural  geog- 
raphy  is  the  true  basis  of  geographical  and  historical 
knowledge.  I  shall  endeavor  to  show,  in  this  talk,  how 
it  should  be  taught.  The  purpose  is,  to  fix  in  the  mind^ 
clear,  comprehensive  pictures  of  the  forms  of  continents. 
These  forms  are  made  up  of  slopes.  The  slopes  range 
from  the  gradual  [level  plains],  to  the  most  abrupt, 
[mountains].  These  forms,  of  course,  cannot  be  seen, 
and  the  question  is.  How  can  they  be  brought  into,  or 
built  in  the  mind  ?  All  we  know  of  the  unseen  must  be 
known  by^  the  mental  power  we  call  imagination.  The 
law  by  which  the  imagination  acts  is  very  plain.  There 
is  no  disagreement  among  psychologists  concerning  it. 
Imagination,  is  that  power  of  the  mind  which  combines 
and  arranges,  with  more  or  less  symmetry  and  propor- 
tion, that  which  primarily  comes  into  the  mind  through 
the  senses.  Every  thing  imagined,  is  made  up  of  parts 
already  in  the  mind,  when  the  particular  act  of  the  imag- 
ination takes  place.  AH  our  power  of  imagining,  is  abso- 
lutely limited  to  sense  products,  already  the  property  of 
the  mind  that  imagines.  If  you  have  never  thought  of 
this,  a  very  little  reflection  will  convince  you  of  its  truth. 
Try  to  imagine  anything,  and  then,  by  analysis,  notice 


GEOGRAPHY,   CONTINUED.  127 

if  any  of  the  parts  are  not  things  you  have  already 
known.  The  unseen  is  made,  or  imagined,  entirely  out 
of  the  seen.  The  question,  then,  in  teaching  structural 
geography,  is,  How  can  the  proper  sense  products,  nec- 
essary to  the  imaging  of  the  forms  of  continents,  be 
brought  into  the  mind  ?  The  answer  is  near  at  hand. 
In  order  to  imagine  the  unseen,  that  which  can  be  seen 
must  be  brought  clearly  into  the  mind.  Elementary 
geography  consists  of  the  close  and  careful  observation 
of  the  forms  of  the  earth's  surface  around  us.  There  is 
hardly  a  town  or  district  in  the  Atlantic  States,  where 
each  and  all  of  these  forms  may  not  be  observed. 

Higher  than  mere  acquisition  of  knowledge,  geog- 
raphy is  the  very  best  means  for  developing  the 
powers  of  imagination.  Next  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  senses,  imagination  is  the  most  important,  in  its 
length,  breadth,  and  depth,  of  all  other  mental  powers. 
Distinct  and  true  creatures  of  the  imagination,  are  an 
indispensable  basis  for  reason,  and  for  ethical  and 
spiritual  culture.  No  subject  is  more  neglected  in  our 
schools.  The  little  child  soon  creates  a  new  world  out 
of  the  scant  material  of  his  limited  sense  products.  In 
this  world  of  fancy,  he  lives  and  revels.  The  child's  life 
would  be  a  sad  one,  were  it  not  for  his  own  bright,  self- 
created  world.  The  little  girl  sees  a  beautiful  doll  in  a 
stick  and  a  rag.  Out  of  a  few  broken  pieces  of  crock- 
ery and  a  shingle  or  two,  she  creates  an  elegant  pantry. 
A  cane,  to  the  little  boy,  is  a  splendid  charger.  Fairy 
stories  delight  all  children,  and  often  contain  more 
truth  than  maxims  or  precepts.  Our  Common  School 
education  has  a  tendency  to  crush  out  all  imagination, 


128  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

or  force  it  into  wrong  and  vicious  channels.  This 
steady  and  strong  tendency  of  the  mind,  may  be  de- 
veloped into  an  immense  power,  and  geography  fur- 
nishes, as  I  have  said,  one  of  the  very  best  means  for  its 
development. 

The  first  steps  in  geography,  should  give  the  child 
the  means  to  imagine  that  which  he  cannot  see.  Begin 
with  the  forms  around  you  ;  the  close  and  careful 
study  of  the  chains  or  ranges  of  hills,  valleys,  plains, 
coast-lines,  springs,  brooks,  rivers,  ponds,  lakes,  islands, 
and  peninsulas.  Study  them  as  you  do  objects  in 
Botany  or  Zoology.  Take  the  children  out  into  the 
fields  and  valleys  ;  return  to  the  school-room  ;  let  them 
describe  orally  what  they  have  seen  ;  then  mould  and 
draw  it  ;  and,  finally,  have  them  describe  the  objects 
they  have  seen  by  writing.  Teach  them  distance  by 
actual  measurement  ;  boundaries  by  fences,  and  othef 
limitations  ;  drainage  by  gutters,  and  the  flow  of  watef 
after  a  rain.  Let  them  find  springs,  and  discover  how 
the  water  comes  out  of  the  ground.  Have  them  bring 
in  different  kinds  of  earth — gravel,  sand,  clay,  and 
loam.  I  have  not  time  to  give  you  any  regular  order  of 
subjects — if  there  be  one.  Begin  with  one  object,  study 
it  carefully,  then  take  another,  and  combine  the  two, 
and  so  on.  I  wish  to  call  your  attention,  especially, 
to  the  three  great  means  of  thought  expression.  First, 
the  concrete  expression  ;  second,  drawing  ;  third,  lan- 
guage. The  first  may  be  done  by  i^ioulding  sand  ob- 
tained from  an  iron  foundry.  Have  pupils  tell  you 
what  they  have  seen,  by  moulding  the  form.  Second, 
have  them  draw  everything  they  see,  in  relief,  and  hori- 


GEOGRAPHY,   CONTINUED,  129 

zontally.  Third,  describe  what  they  have  seen,  orally, 
and  then  in  writing.  Use  these  means  continually  in 
teaching  geography. 

The  observation  of  objects  should  begin,  of  course, 
as  soon  as  the  child  enters  school.  The  objects  around 
the  school-house  should  be  observed  :  yards,  fences, 
gardens,  gutters,  roads,  fields,  pastures,  hills,  valleys. 
Out  of  these  objects,  many  very  interesting  and  profit- 
able object  and  language  lessons  may  be  made.  But 
the  teaching  of  elementary  geography  proper  should 
not  begin  much  before  the  fifth  year  of  the  child's 
school  life.  The  work  of  which  I  have  just  spoken,  the 
study  of  geographical  forms  that  may  be  observed, 
should  be  begun  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  year,  or 
the  first  of  the  fifth.  One  year,  at  least,  should  be 
spent  in  this  study.  Parallel  with  it,  books,  like.  Each 
and  All,  Seven  Little  Sisters,  Guyot's  Introduction, 
may  be  read  with  great  profit.  They  seem  to  excite 
curiosity  and  inspire  the  imagination.  The  power  of 
imagination  should  be  developed  at  every  step.  Thus, 
after  a  lesson  upon  the  hill,  tell  the  children  about  the 
great  mountains  in  the  world.  When  they  have  seen 
one  river,  tell  them  about  others  that  they  can't  see. 
When  they  have  examined,  moulded,  drawn,  and 
written  a  description  of  one  peninsula,  draw  other 
peninsulas,  like  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  Florida,  Norway 
and  Sweden,  for  them.  When  they  have  studied  an 
island,  tell  them  about  the  great  islands  [the  continents]. 

Constantly  excite  their  curiosity  to  solve  problems 
like  these— Where  does  the  water  go,  when  it  falls  on 
the  ground  ?     How  far  down  does  it  go  ?     What  does  it 


I30  NOTES  OF    TALKS   ON   TEACHING, 

do  in  the  earth  ?  When  does  it  come  out  of  the 
ground  ?  Where  is  the  more  water,  in  rivers  and  lakes, 
or  in  the  ground  ?  Why  does  not  a  river  run  in  a 
straight  line  ?  What  turns  it  ?  Why  is  it  narrow  at 
some  places  and  wide  at  others  ?  Take  the  water  out 
of  a  lake,  and  what  would  you  have  left  ?  What,  then, 
is  a  lake  ?  Where  does  a  river  get  its  water  ?  How 
much  land  does  a  river  drain  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  river  and  a  canal  ?  What  if  the  earth  was  all 
level,  like  the  floor  ?  What  are  the  uses  of  a  river  ?  a 
hill  ?  a  plain  ?  a  valley  ?  When  does  the  water  come 
into  the  land  on  the  coast  ?  What  makes  a  pebble  ? 
What  is  the  difference  between  a  pebble  and  a  grain  of 
sand  ?  a  pebble  and  a  great  piece  of  rock  ?  and  a 
quarry  ?  These  and  other  questions,  when  skilfully 
used,  and  the  child  is  led  to  discover  everything  for 
himself,  may  be  made  a  source  of  deep  and  abiding  in- 
terest on  the  part  of  children.  The  philosophy  of  geog- 
raphy may  begin,  as  soon  as  the  child  can  make  the 
slightest  generalization. 

When  the  child  has  in  his  mind,  the  necessary  sense 
products,  he  may  begin  to  build  the  continents,  as  the 
next  simplest  step.  The  pupil  can  be  led  to  imagine 
the  continent,  far  easier  than  he  can  be  led  to  imagine 
any  part  of  it.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  at  first  thought, 
an  entire  continent  is  simpler,  in  its  general  construc- 
tion, than  a  single  town  or  district.  It  is  a  mistake, 
then,  to  begin  with  states  and  sections,  before  the  en- 
tire continent  is  imagined. 

There  is  a  common  rule  in  teaching  geography,  which 
leads  to  the  teaching  of  the  immediate  surroundings  of 


GEOGRAPHY,   CONTINUED,  131 

the  school-house,  the  district,  the  town,  the  county, 
the  state.  This  order  is  illogical,  because  the  county  is 
more  difficult  to  imagine,  as  I  have  said,  than  the 
entire  continent.  The  reason  why  we  teach  the  sur- 
roundings is  misunderstood.  The  purpose  of  teaching 
that  which  can  be  seen  and  examined,  is  simply  and 
solely,  to  enable  the  child  to  imagine  the  unseen.  The 
great  highlands,  long  slopes,  and  regular  vertical  forms 
of  the  whole  continent,  is,  to  my  mind,  the  next  sim- 
plest step,  when  the  facts  of  elementary  geography  are 
in  the  child's  mind. 

Another  pedagogical  rule  is  often  wrongly  applied  : 
Begin  with  the  whole,  and  go  to  the  parts.  Thus,  many 
teachers  think  that  the  whole  must  be  the  great  globe 
itself.  The  rule  should  be  changed  to  :  Begin  with  any 
whole  that  is  in  the  mind,  and  go  to  the  parts.  Now, 
there  are  two  kinds  of  wholes.  One  is  the  whole  of 
sense  grasp  ;  the  other  is  the  whole  of  the  imagination. 
The  latter  depends  entirely,  as  I  have  tried  to  show, 
upon  the  former.  Not  until  the  child  has  the  acquired 
power  of  imaging  or  synthesizing  the  whole  continent, 
is  he  able  to  analyze  or  even  think  of  the  parts  ;  how 
much  less  is  he  able  to  imagine  the  great  round  ball  we 
call  the  earth  !  The  reasonable  road  to  this  knowledge 
is,  first,  sense  products  of  geographical  forms  ;  second, 
whole  continents  ;  then,  parts  of  continents  ;  and  last, 
by  means  of  the  acquired  power  of  synthesis,  the  whole 
globe. 

Mathematical  geography,  then,  should  be  the  last 
geographical  subject  taught.  But  from  the  first  to  the 
last,  the  facts  necessary  to  the  teaching  of  mathemati- 


132  NOTES  OF    TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

cal  geography  should  be  picked  up  all  along  the  line. 
The  seasons,  with  all  their  changes  of  rain  and  sunshine, 
snow  and  ice,  dry  and  wet  weather  ;  growth  and  death 
of  vegetation  •,  heat  and  cold  ;  the  sun  and  its  move- 
ments ;  the  moon  and  stars  ;  when  they  rise,  how  they 
look,  what  they  do;  so  far  as  children  can  observe,  should 
be  made  the  constant  subjects  of  observation.  Mark 
out,  on  the  floor,  the  limits  of  the  sunbeams  as  they 
strike  through  the  window.  Do  the  same  thing  the 
next  day,  at  the  same  hour.  Note  the  difference,  and 
wonder  how  it  all  comes  about. 

Compare  this  teaching  of  real  geography,  that  delights 
children  at  every  step,  that  trains  close  observation,  lays 
the  foundation  for  the  development  of  imagination,  and 
forms  the  elementary  steps  of  all  physical  sciences, 
with  the  rote  learning  of  a  mass  of  dry,  disconnected 
facts,  found  in  the  so-called  primary  geography.  Which 
does  the  most  good  ?  is  a  question  I  leave  for  you  to 
decide. 


TALK    XX. 


GEOGRAPHY,    CONTINUED. 


When  the  elementary  facts  have  been  carefully 
gathered,  the  building  of  the  continents  should  begin. 
By  building  of  the  continents,  I  mean,  that  the  teacher 
should  combine  the  acquired  sense  products,  into  g 
picture  of  the  horizontal  and  vertical  structure  of  tha 
continent,  so  that  the  pupil  can  travel,  in  imagination, 
all  over  the  structure,  and  mentally  see  its  parts.  This 
picture,  at  first,  is  a  general  one,  a  bird's-eye  view, 
to  be  gradually  filled  up,  and  intensified  in  details,  by 
all  after-study  of  the  continents.  It  is  to  form  the 
mental  framework  of  all  the  facts  that  will  be  after- 
ward learned.  In  this  framework  of  memory,  cities, 
boundaries,  mining  and  agricultural  regions,  may  be 
placed  and  retained.  Geography,  as  commonly 
taught,  leaves  out  the  indispensable  conception  of 
upraised  forms,  and  limits  the  study  to  the  plain  sur- 
face of  a  map,  using  the  artificial  helps  to  memory,  of 
color  and  boundary  lines.  In  this  teaching  of  geog- 
raphy, maps,  both  plain  and  relief,  together  with  de- 
scription, are  used  simply  as  aids  in  imagining  the  real 
continent.  That  is,  the  mind  is  to  be  carried  beyond 
the  symbols  to  the  real  things  themselves. 

The   general  forms  of   continents  are  comparatively 


134  NOTES  OF   TALKS   ON    TEACHING. 

simple.  In  the  first  teaching,  the  teacher  should  try  to 
fix  this  general  form  in  the  mind,  with  very  little  at- 
tention to  details.  The  body  of  land  we  call  a  con- 
tinent consists  wholly  of  slopes,  bounded  by  rivers  and 
coast-lines.  It  may  be  taken,  at  first,  as  one  great 
mass  of  land  raised  above  the  sea.  The  first  division 
that  should  be  made,  is  a  division  into  great  and  lesser 
upraised  masses  or  highlands.  These  upraised  masses 
are  bounded  by  coast-lines  on  one  side,  and  the  line  of 
the  lowest  level  between  them.  The  mountain  ranges 
are  simply  the  tops  or  apexes  of  these  highlands.  They 
form,  in  themselves,  a  very  small  part,  comparatively,  of 
the  highland  masses.  Thus,  we  start  from  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  line  of  the  lowest  level  between  the  eastern 
and  western  highlands,  and  travel  west  on  that  which 
looks  like  level  ground,  until  we  rise  seven  thousand 
feet  above  the  ^ea,  before  a  mountain  is  seen. 

I  wish  to  speak  now,  of  moulding  these  forms  in  sand, 
as  an  aid  to  the  imagination  in  getting  pictures  of  the 
upraised  forms.  First,  let  me  say,  that  the  moulding, 
like  maps  and  other  means  of  description,  is  simply  and 
solely,  a  help  to  the  imagination.  If  the  mind  sticks  in 
the  "mud-pie,"  as  it  is  often  called,  the  mud  is  of  little 
or  no  use.  The  teacher  should  be  constantly  carrying 
the  children's  minds  from  the  symbol  to  the  symbol- 
ized. An  objection  is  often  made  to  relief  maps,  because 
they  exaggerate  heights.  It  is  impossible  to  represent 
to  the  eye  the  relative  heights  of  the  earth's  surface.  If 
relief  maps  are  not  used,  I  would  like  to  ask  the  objectors. 
What  means  have  you  of  leading  the  pupils  to  imagine 
continental  forms  ?     As  the  mind  is  led  from  the  relief 


GEOGRAPHY,   CONTINUED.  I35 

to  the  reality,  when  extent  can  be  imagined,  the  rel- 
ative heights  will  take  their  true  place.  A  board,  or 
table,  3x4  feet,  with  raised  edges  ;  half  a  bai  rel  of  sifted 
foundry  sand,  dampened  so  that  it  can  be  easily  worked 
with  the  hands,  is  material  enough  for  moulding.  A  few 
weeks*  practice  on  your  part,  will  enable  you  to  mould 
any  continental  form  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
skill 

You  may  begin  in  several  ways.  I  should  begin  with 
the  continent  that  has  the  simplest  form — South  America. 
Throw  up  the  great  highlands,  that  extend  from  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  to  Panama.  Lead  pupils  to  see  how 
the  highland  determines  the  outline  of  the  western 
coast.  Compare  the  abrupt  slope  on  one  side,  with  the 
long  and  gradual  slope  on  the  other.  Lead  them  to  see 
that,  if  the  western  coast  is  determined  by  the  high- 
lands, the  eastern  coast  must  also  be  so  determined. 
That,  if  there  were  no  other  highlands,  the  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  would  cut  into  the  land,  so  as  to  form  two 
abrupt  slopes  on  either  side.  Now,  the  lesser  high- 
lands of  Brazil,  and  Guiana  may  be  thrown  up,  and  the 
pupils  will  readily  see  what  determines  the  outline  of  the 
eastern  coast.  Next,  from  the  simple  laws  of  drainage 
they  have  already  learned,  they  will  be  able  to  locate 
the  great  river  basins.  The  different  degrees  of  fertility 
may  also  be  discovered  in  the  same  way.  Have  each 
pupil  mould  the  continent.  For  this  purpose,  small 
pieces  of  board  with  raised  edges  may  be  used,  or  shal- 
low tin  pans,  that  can  be  placed  on  their  desks.  The 
discussions  of  the  effect  of  the  form,  upon  drainage,  soil, 
and  vegetation,  should  go  on,  hand  in  hand  with  the 


136  NOTES   OF    TALKS   ON   TEACHING. 

moulding.  The  outline  of  the  continent  may  be  drawn 
from  the  moulded  form,  and  the  great  highlands  and 
rivers  designated.  Drawing  should  be  constantly  used, 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  all  geographical  and 
historical  teaching.  The  aim  should  not  be  to  draw 
nice,  accurate  maps,  but  to  express  thought  in  a  rapid 
way.  The  first  thing,  in  all  description  in  geography 
or  history,  should  be,  a  map  of  the  country  or  section 
under  study. 

When  the  general  form  of  one  continent  has  been 
moulded,  drawn,  and  studied,  take  the  next  in  order  of 
simplicity — North  America.  When  North  America  has 
been  moulded,  the  two  continents  should  be  compared. 
First,  lead  pupils  to  discover  the  resemblances  between 
them  ;  then  the  differences.  Have  them  drawn  and 
moulded,  in  their  relative  position.  Lead  pupils  to  trace 
the  great  highland  mass,  from  Patagonia  to  Alaska. 
Follow  this  with  the  moulding  of  Africa.  By  comparing 
this  continent  with  North  and  South  America,  pupils 
may  be  led  to  discover  the  causes  of  the  wonderful 
differences  in  their  history,  and  development.  They  can 
reason  from  cause  to  effect,  and  by  such  reasoning,  dis- 
cover what  an  immense  influence  structure  has  upon 
civilization.  Asia  and  Europe,  followed  by  Australia, 
may  be  successively  moulded  and  drawn.  The  com- 
parisons should  be  constantly  made.  All  the  moulding 
and  drawing,  should  be  on  a  scale  of  distances,  which 
will  develop  the  power  of  judging  extent.  The  con- 
tinents should  be  located  on  the  globe,  so  that  their  rel- 
ative positions  may  be  seen,  and  the  proper  preparation 
made  for  the  study  of  mathematical  geography.     The 


GEOGRAPHY,  CONTINUED.  137 

principal  islands  and  groups  of  islands,  should  be  studied 
in  the  same  way  as  the  continents.  The  continental 
islands  may  be  discovered  as  broken  fragments  of  the 
mainland. 

With  this  study  of  continental  forms,  descriptions  of 
vegetation,  climate,  soil  and  peoples,  should  go  on  ; 
not  in  a  definite  and  particular  way,  but  enough  should 
be  given  to  feed  the  imagination,  to  arouse  curiosity, 
and  clothe  the  dry  bones  of  the  structure  with  the 
warm  coloring  of  living  forms.  Children  should  read 
travels,  bits  of  history,  etc.,  in  connection  with  this 
work  of  moulding  and  drawing. 


TALK   XXI. 

GEOGRAPHY,    CONCLUDED. 

We  have  now  the  general  picture  of  the  great  land 
masses  that  rise  above  the  sea.  The  pupil  can  recall 
them,  can  travel  over  them  in  imagination.  With  the 
placing  of  the  continents  in  their  relative  positions  on 
the  globe,  some  conception  of  climate  may  be  taught. 
Locating  the  great  rivers  and  their  basins,  has  brought 
the  children  to  the  study  of  drainage  ;  and  this,  in  turn, 
has  furnished  a  basis  to  the  study  of  vegetation.  The 
soil,  and  great  staple  productions  of  all  the  con- 
tinents, may  be  now  learned  quicker  and  better,  than 
the  soil  and  productions  of  a  single  country,  in  the  old 
way,  of  memorizing  facts,  which  were  the  staple  products 
of  the  old  geographies.  All  the  maps  of  the  continents 
may  be  drawn  upon  the  board  in  their  relative  positions, 
as  they  appear  on  the  Mercator  Projection.  The  soil 
may  be  divided  into  fertile,  arable,  and  barren,  and 
indicated  by  colored  crayons  upon  the  maps.  Lessons 
upon  soil  should  be  given,  and  specimens  of  the  various 
kinds  of  earth,  from  gravel  to  vegetable  mould,  ex- 
amined. If  you  have  a  bit  of  ground  near  the  school- 
house,  raise  all  the  different  kinds  of  useful  plants  that 
you  can.  Then,  take  up  successively  all  the  great  food 
staples.     Locate   the   wheat,    the    rice,    the    corn,    the 


GEOGRAPHY,   CONCLUDED.  139 

potato,  and  the  rye  regions,  and  indicate  them,  as  I 
have  said,  in  colors  on  the  maps.  Follow  these,  with 
the  luxuries  in  the  way  of  food — coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  etc. 
Then  the  subject  of  shelter  and  fuel  may  be  studied, 
the  forests  and  kinds  of  wood.  Lessons  should  be 
given  upon  specimens  of  wood.  Plants  used  for  cloth- 
ing may  come  next  ;  the  cotton  and  flax,  the  caoutchouc, 
etc.,  may  be  located.  This  study  of  plants,  as  I  have 
said,  leads  us  directly  to  the  study  of  Botany. 

From  vegetation  they  may  go  to  animals.  These  may 
be  classified,  and  their  haunts  discovered  ;  animals  for 
food,  animals  for  clothing,  beasts  of  burden,  domestic 
and  wild  animals.  This  distribution  may  be  noted,  by 
drawing  the  animals  on  the  maps,  as  they  are  distributed 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth.  You  will  readily  see  that, 
by  this  work,  you  have  created  a  necessity  for  the  study 
of  Zoology. 

Next,  mines  and  quarries  may  be  located.  Stone  and 
metals  for  shelter,  for  machinery,  and  for  money  and 
luxury  may  be  dug  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  by  the 
eager  imagination  of  the  pupil.  Coal  and  salt  mines 
may  be  explained,  and  the  wonderful  story  of  their 
creation  be  told.  We  are  thus  brought  naturally  to  the 
study  of  geology  and  mineralogy.  The  study  of  the 
structure,  as  I  told  you,  leads  directly  to  the  study  of 
the  construction. 

The  earth  is  now  made  ready  for  the  abode  of  man. 
and  man,  the  animal,  will  now  take  hi^s  place  on  the  earthj 
created  in  the  minds  of  the  children.  Lessons  should 
be  given  on  the  races  of  men  ;  and  their  peculiarities, 
customs,   and    habits    described.     The    races    may    be 


140  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

located  upon  the  maps,  by  coloring  the  maps  as  the 
races  are  colored.  How  do  men  live  ?  In  what  kind  of 
houses  ?  What  clothing  do  they  wear  ?  What  do  they 
eat  ?  Pupils  have  been  prepared  by  the  previous 
lessons  to  answer  these  questions,  with  one  exception — 
that  of  the  products  brought  from  countries  by  com- 
merce. Lessons  on  government,  should  now  be  given — 
how  men  found  governments,  adapted  to  their  particular 
states  of  barbarity  or  civilization.  Then,  all  the  con- 
tinents may  be  divided  up  by  boundary  lines  of  red 
chalk,  into  political  divisions.  In  two  or  three  days,  if 
the  work  I  have  indicated  has  been  properly  done,  all  the 
political  divisions  of  the  earth,  and  their  relative  posi- 
tions, may  be  easily  taught  ;  and  more  than  that,  pupils 
will  be  ready  to  answer  these  questions  of  each  political 
division.  What  is  the  surface  and  soil  of  this  country  ? 
Climate  ?  What  the  productions  ?  The  animals  and 
race  of  men  ?  The  foundation  thus  thoroughly  laid,  en- 
ables the  child  to  learn  more  of  the  world  in  one  week, 
than  the  children  who  memorize  the  conglomerated 
mass  of  disconnected  facts  can  learn,  in  a  year.  There 
is  a  place  made  for  everything,  and  everything  is  put  in 
its  place. 

We  are  now  ready  for  the  founding  of  cities,  because 
we  know  the  conditions  under  which  cities  may  be 
founded.  Here,  the  various  industries  may  be  grouped 
and  studied.  The  farmer  on  his  farm,  the  smith  in  his 
shop,  the  weaver  at  his  loom.  The  necessity  and  in- 
vention of  machinery,  for  the  economizing  of  force. 
The  use  of  steam  and  water  power,  and  electricity,  in 
manufactures.     The  pupils   will  readily   discover  that 


GEOGRAPHY,  CONCLUDED,  141 

the  countries  containing  small,  quick-flowing  rivers, 
must  be  the  centres  of  manufacturing  interests.  Com- 
merce, may  be  made  an  excellent  review  of  what  pupils 
have  already  learned.  What  do  certain  peoples  want  ? 
When  and  how  will  they  get  it  ?  Then  comes  the 
necessity  for  ships,  steamers,  railway  cars,  and  beasts  of 
burden.  Routes  on  the  ocean  may  be  traced  from  city 
to  city,  and  country  to  country,  and  the  great  lines  of 
iron  rails*  stretched  across  the  continents. 

The  relative  positions  of  the  countries  may  now  be 
fixed  in  the  mind,  by  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and 
the  climates  may  be  studied  on  the  same  lines,  and  the 
causes  of  the  differences  in  climate  be  discovered. 

The  next  step  I  would  suggest,  is  the  study  of  a  few 
very  important  countries.  Important,  as  they  relate  to 
the  world's  progress  and  civilization.  The  United 
States  should  be  thoroughly  studied,  as  a  preparation 
for  our  history.  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany 
should  be  studied  for  the  same  purpose.  Egypt,  Pales- 
tine, Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain,  should  be  separately 
studied  as  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  Ancient  His- 
tory. The  pupils  are  now  ready  to  watch,  with  great 
eagerness  and  close  observation,  the  changing  mass  of 
mankind,  as  they  move  over  the  stage,  that  has  been  so 
carefully  prepared  in  their  imagination.  They  are  now 
ready  for  History. 

Collateral  reading  should  be  kept  up  from  the  begin- 
ning to  the  end  of  all  this  work.  Histories,  adapted  to 
the  children  ;  stories,  travels,  descriptions  of  animals 
and  plants  ;  all  may  be  very  profitably  used  at  every 
stage  of  progress. 


142  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

Objects — kinds  of  plants,  woods,  articles  of  food, 
clothing,  fuel,  implements  of  labor,  models  of  shelters 
of  all  countries  and  nations,  should  be  collected  into  a 
school  museum,  and  used  in  teaching,  as  they  are  needed. 
When  objects  fail,  pictures  should  be  used.  Of  these, 
■  every  teacher  can  easily  make  a  very  large  collection, 
cut  from  illustrated  papers,  magazines,  books,  etc., 
neatly  pasted  upon  cheap  card-board,  and  classified. 
One  set  may  be  used  for  landscapes,  another  for  water 
views,  others  for  shelter,  cities,  animals,  races  of  men, 
and  the  various  industries. 

This  is  but  a  brief  outline  of  the  new,  and  compara- 
tively untried  science  of  Geography.  The  great  diffi- 
culty in  the  way  of  its  introduction,  can  be  traced  to  the 
terrible  power  of  habits,  fixed  by  our  own  imperfect 
education.  The  teaching  of  the  science  of  Geography, 
depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  power  to  use  the 
imagination.  In  my  limited  experience,  I  find  that  the 
imagination,  instead  of  being  developed  by  the  usual 
methods  of  teaching,  is  crushed,  and  nearly  obliterated, 
so  far  as  the  action  of  the  mind  is  concerned  in  study. 
The  first  thing  for  us  to  do,  my  dear  teachers,  is  to  con- 
vince ourselves,  by  careful  and  thoughtful  study,  that 
there  is  a  real  science  of  Geography.  After  this  is  done, 
we  may  have  the  courage  and  persistence,  so  much 
needed  for  its  application  in  teaching. 


TALK    XXII. 

HISTORY. 

Two  things  should  be  acquired  by  the  study  of  history 
in  grammar  schools.  First,  an  ardent  love  for  history  ; 
second  a  plan  or  method  of  studying  the  subject.  The 
main  practical  purpose  of  the  study  of  history  is,  to  guide 
our  steps  in  social,  political,  and  religious  progress.  This 
philosophy  of  history,  cannot  be  studied  to  any  great  ex- 
tent until  the  student  reaches  the  high  school  or  college. 
The  study  of  history  in  the  grammar  schools,  should  be 
confined  to  the  collection  and  arrangement  of  facts  nec- 
essary to  the  generalization  upon  which  the  philosophy 
of  history  depends.  The  place  of  history  in  mental  de- 
velopment, is  found  in  the  means  it  affords  for  increasing 
the  power  of  the  imagination  and  deduction.  Generali- 
zations learned  and  recited  by  rote,  before  the  facts  are 
known,  encumber  the  mind  with  useless  rubbish.  There 
are  very  few  text-books  that  can  be  used  profitably  in 
grammar  schools,  because  they  are,  for  the  most  part, 
filled  wnth  such  generalizations.  Higginson's  **  Young 
Folk's  History  of  the  United  States"  is  an  exception. 

The  active  imagination  of  the  child,  so  strongly 
marked  in  his  ardent  love  for  stories,  may  be  developed 
into  a  still  greater  love  for  history.  I  have  spoken 
briefly,  in  a  former  talk,  of  the  use  of  fairy  and  mytho- 


144  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

logical  stories  in  mental  development.  The  child's  in- 
tense desire  to  use  his  imagination  continually,  is  the 
foundation  of  this  love.  Fairy  stories,  to  the  child,  are 
like  the  parables  of  the  Master  ;  they  contain  the  seeds 
of  truth,  that  will  germinate  and  fructify  in  the  child's 
mind,  far  better  than  the  truth  grown  to  its  full  stature, 
and  embodied  in  maxims  and  precepts.  Every  teacher 
should  be  an  excellent  story-teller,  so  as  to  make  the 
half  hour  each  day  given  to  story-telling,  a  delightful 
one  to  the  children.  As  the  child  gains  experience,  by 
contact  and  communing  with  his  fellows,  there  comes  a 
time,  when  the  real  should  take  the  place  of  the  ficti- 
tious, and  all  the  child's  love  for  fancy  may  be  carried 
over  and  become  more  intensified,  in  his  love  for  the 
real.  Short,  carefully  selected,  and  well-told  stories, 
make  a  good  beginning  for  the  elementary  study  of  his- 
tory. It  matters  not  whether  these  stories  be  taken  from 
ancient  or  modern  history.  They  should  be  brief,  sim- 
ple, well  told.  Tell  the  children  the  story,  and  have 
them  tell  it  back  in  their  own  language.  Then  let  them 
write  it,  as  I  said  in  my  talk  upon  language  ;  this  fur- 
nishes one  of  the  best  means  of  talking  with  the  pencil. 
Work  like  this  may  be  given  in  the  fourth  year.  Pictures, 
representing  historical  scenes,  like  the  **  Landing  of 
Columbus,"  the  '*  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi,"  etc., 
may  be  used  with  excellent  effect,  both  for  language 
aivd  history  lessons.  First,  have  pupils  describe  what 
they  see  in  the  picture,  thus  arousing  their  curiosity, 
and  then  tell  them  the  story.  Two  years,  at  least,  may 
be  profitably  spent  in  this  work.  Reading,  after  the 
third   year,  of  easy  and   interesting  books  upon  history 


HISTORY.  145 

may  be  introduced.  Books  like  '*  Stories  of  American 
History,"  Quackenbos's  "  Elementary  History,"  and, 
Mrs.  Monroe's  **  Our  Country."  These  may  be  read  as 
regular  reading  lessons.  Pupils  should  be  required  to 
tell  what  they  have  read,  both  orally  and  in  writing. 
The  sixth  year  may  be  spent  to  advantage  in  the  study 
of  the  biographies  of  a  few  great  men  and  women, 
around  whose  history  very  important  facts  can  be 
grouped. 

In  the  seventh  year,  more  direct  study  of  history  should 
begin.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  teach  the  history  of  the 
United  States,  unconnected  with  the  history  of  other 
nations,  whose  acts  made  our  history  possible.  From 
1492  on,  the  history  of  all  peoples  that  had  so  much  to  do 
with  the  formation  of  our  own  nation  ;  Italy,  Spain, 
France,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain  should 
be  studied.  In  teaching  Spanish  or  French  discoveries, 
one  or  more  topics  may  be  arranged  for  the  teaching  of 
Spain  and  France  at  the  time  of  these  discoveries.  One 
great  difficulty  in  the  teaching  of  history,  that  puzzles 
teachers  and  text-book  makers,  is  the  immense  number 
of  facts  that  may  be  taught.  A  careful  selection  of  the 
subjects  to  be  taught,  is  of  the  first  importance.  Two 
rules  should  govern,  in  the  selection  of  topics.  First, 
select  subjects  that  are  interesting  ;  second,  choose 
those  topics  which  bear  directly  on  the  development  of 
the  progress  of  the  nation,  or  upon  its  failure  and  down- 
fall. That  is,  the  teaching  of  all  facts  should  be  so 
directed,  that  the  pupil  when  the  proper  time  comes, 
may  be  able  to  study  effectively  the  philosophy  of  his- 
tory.    The    course    of    study   in    history,    during    the 


146  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

seventh  and  eighth  years,  should  consist  of  a  carefully 
selected  and  arranged  number  of  topics,  that  cover  the 
salient  points  in  the  history  of  a  country.  They  should 
be  so  arranged,  that  one  may  be  developed  into  the 
other,  and  the  whole  form  a  framework  of  history,  into 
which  all  after  facts  may  come  in  their  proper  places. 
Do  not  choose  too  many  topics.  One  topic,  so  taught 
as  to  arouse  genuine  interest,  and  love  for  reading  his- 
tory, will  do  more  good  than  a  hundred,  superficially 
taught.  Bear  in  mind  that  your  purpose  is  to  create 
a  love  for  history.  You  are  generating  a  power,  that  is 
to  act  during  the  child's  life.  Teaching  the  child  to 
memorize  page  after  page  of  dry  dates  and  empty  gen- 
eralizations, is  the  best  means  to  induce  weakness,  and 
disgust  pupils,  so  that  they  will  look  upon  history  all 
their  days  as  an  unpleasant  study. 

That  which  interests  children  the  most  is,  the  facts 
that  come  nearest  to  their  own  experience,  [expanded 
and  exaggerated,  of  course].  Thus,  the  inner  life  of  a 
people  may  be  made  intensely  interesting.  How  they 
lived,  the  kind  of  houses,  what  they  ate,  their  clothing, 
customs,  and  manners,  should  form  a  very  considerable 
part  of  all  the  teaching  of  history.  Besides,  in  these 
facts,  we  find  the  true  secret  of  the  failure  or  growth  of 
nations  ;  of  which  the  governments,  wars,  and  great 
events  are  simply  the  outcome.  A  real  picture  of  how  a 
tribe  or  nation  lives,  the  family  and  social  relations,  the 
education  and  customs,  is  of  more  philosophical  value, 
than  the  lives  of  Alexander,  Caesar,  or  Napoleon  ;  for  the 
first  made  the  latter  possible,  they  furnished  the  con- 
ditions through  which  great  men  become  great. 


HISTORY,  147 

In  the  talks  upon  geography,  I  tried  to  show  you  of 
what  immense  importance,  the  knowledge  of  the  struct- 
ure of  the  earth's  surface  is,  in  remembering  and  under- 
standing history.  How  the  varying  slopes  make  up  the 
character  of  the  continent,  and  influence  the  civilization 
of  its  peoples.  The  main  point  which  I  wish  to  impress 
upon  you  now,  is,  that  a  clear  and  distinct  picture  of  the 
stage,  upon  which  the  drama  of  a  nation^s  history  moves, 
is  absolutely  essential,  in  fixing  the  various  facts  and 
scenes  in  the  memory.  The  structure  remains'  nearly 
the  same  throughout  the  ages,  and  it  is  only  by  the  close 
association  of  the  ever-changing  scenes  of  time,  with  the 
clearest  notions  of  immovable  space,  that  these  scenes 
can  be  retained  in  their  relations  and  developments. 
The  first  thing  to  be  done,  then,  in  teaching  any  topic, 
is,  to  fix  the  stage  or  structure  upon  which  the  scenes 
were  enacted,  very  clearly  in  the  mind.  This  may  be 
done  best,  by  moulding  the  structure  in  sand,  upon  the 
moulding-board,  and  then,  by  drawing  the  horizontal 
outline  on  the  blackboard.  No  attempt  should  ever  be 
made  to  teach  a  fact  in  history  without  the  close  accom- 
paniment of  moulding  and  drawing. 

History  cannot  be  well  taught  from  one  book.  I  would, 
if  possible,  have  each  pupil  obtain  a  different  book. 
There  should  be  in  every  school  a  collection  of  histories 
for  reference  ahd  reading.  Works  of  fiction  should  also 
be  included.  Give  out  a  topic,  and  ask  pupils  to  read  it 
up,  mentioning  the  best  sources  of  information  at  their 
disposal.  In  recitation,  have  them  tell  what  they  have 
read  ;  add  to  their  store  of  knowledge  by  giving  them 
your  own  ;  arouse  their  curiosity,  thus  leading  them  to 


148  NOTES   OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING, 

read  in  certain  directions  ;  discussions  may  be  held  on 
disputed  points,  and  authorities  cited.  The  teacher 
should  mould  all  that  the  pupils  bring,  into  systematic  or- 
der, and,  finally,  when  pupils  are  full  of  the  subject,  have 
them  write  out  all  they  have  learned.  When  the  day  of 
examination  arrives,  select  one  or  more  of  the  topics^  and 
have  pupils  tell,  with  their  pens,  all  they  know  about  it. 
The  marking  should  be  upon  the  pupil's  power  of  re- 
search, expression  in  original  language,  and  finally  upon 
the  use  of  language. 

Very  much  of  the  pupil's  power  in  learning  history 
depends  upon  his  ability  to  read  well,  i,e.^  to  get 
thought  accurately  and  rapidly  by  means  of  words.  By 
this  plan  all  mere  rote-learning  is  entirely  avoided. 
The  memorizing  of  dates  should  be  confined  to  the 
events  that  mark  great  epochs  in  history.  Dates  should 
be  used  simply  as  labels  upon  subjects  that  have  been 
made  very  interesting  to  pupils. 

The  danger  of  using  one  book,  is,  that  by  it,  pupils 
will  be  led  to  pin  their  faith  to  an  author.  By  using 
many  books  they  will  soon  find  how  facts,  causes  and 
results,  differ  under  the  different  authorities.  They  will 
discover  ^x  themselves,  that  even  the  best  authorities  are 
not  always  reliable.  The  teacher  should  avoid  dogmatic 
opinions  in  regard  to  politics  and  religion.  Pupils,  if 
leffto  their  own  research,  will  find  out  for  themselves 
the  important  fact,  that  it  was  not  because  men  were 
Republicans  or  Democrats,  Protestants  or  Catholics, 
that  so  many  bad  acts  have  been  performed  by  various 
sects  and  parties  ;  but  because  the  lust  for  power,  and 
love  for  cruelty  drives  men  to  the  commission  of  crime, 


HISTORY,  149 

no  matter  what  their  party  name  or  sect  may  be.  To 
teach  a  child  that  the  Protestants  were  always  right  and 
pure,  that  the  Catholics  were  always  wrong  and  unjust, 
is  radically  false  and  wicked.  A  great  love  for  truth  and 
justice  should  be  developed  by  real  teaching.  In  my 
experience,  children  may  be  led  to  love  the  reading  of 
history  more  than  they  do  that  of  fiction.  It  is  won- 
derful, it  would  seem  almost  incredible,  if  a  painful  ex- 
perience had  not  taught  us  otherwise,  that  the  learning 
of  history  can  be  made  a  repulsive  drudgery  on  the  part 
of  children.  Truly,  the  invention  of  the  school-master 
has  been  carried  to  the  bitter  end,  when  children  can  be 
trained  into  a  dislike  for  the  study  of  the  grand  scenes 
of  which  history  is  so  rich  and  full. 


TALK    XXIII. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

I  BELIEVE  that  the  greatest  obstacle  in  the  way  of  real 
teaching  to-day,  is  the  standard  of  examinations.  The 
cause  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  standard  for  the  work  has 
a  powerful  influence  on  the  work  itself.  What  should 
examinations  be  ?  The  test  of  real  teaching — of  genuine 
work.  What  is  teaching  ?  Teaching  is  the  evolution 
of  thought,  and  thought  is  the  mind's  mode  of  action. 
Teaching  arouses  mental  activity,  so  as  to  develop  the 
mind  in  the  best  possible  way,  and  at  the  same  time, 
leads  to  the  acquisition  of  that  knowledge  which  is  most 
useful  to  the  mind  and  its  development.  There  is  one 
other  important  factor  to  be  considered,  and  that  is,  the 
training  of  that  skill  which  leads  to  the  proper  expres- 
sion of  the  thought  evolved.  This  factor  in  teaching,  is 
usually  called  trainings  the  results  of  which  are  correct 
modes  of  expression,  such  as  talking,  writing,  drawing, 
making,  and  building.  All  school  work,  then,  is  com- 
prehended in  thought  and  its  expression.  It  must  be 
understood  at  every  step,  that  expression  is  only  neces- 
sary when  thought  is  evolved.  Train  expression  at  the 
expense  of  thought,  and  we  have  the  body  without  the 
living  soul. 
Real  teaching,  meaning  by  this  the  evolution  of  thought, 


EXAM  IN  A  TIONS,  15 1 

and  the  training  of  its  expression,  does  not  aim  at  the 
learning  of  disconnected  facts.  Real  teaching  leads  to 
the  systematic,  symmetrical,  all-sided  upbuilding  of  a 
compact  body  of  knowledge  in  the  mind.  Every  faculty 
of  the  mind — perception,  judgment,  classification,  rea- 
son, imagination,  and  memory — is  brought  into  action 
in  this  upbuilding,  or  /wstruction  ;  and  the  foundations 
are  laid  broad  and  deep,  in  sense-products.  Words  and 
all  other  means  of  expression,  are  simply  indications  of 
thought-building,  and  its  complicated  processes.  Ex- 
aminations, then,  should  test  the  conditions  and  prog- 
ress, of  mind  in  its  development.  The  means  of  ex- 
amination are  found  in  language,  oral  and  written,  in 
drawing,  and  all  other  forms  of  expression. 

If  I  am  not  mistaken,  the  examinations  usually  given, 
simply  test  the  pupil's  power  of  memorizing  discon- 
nected facts.  Take,  for  illustration,  the  innumerable 
facts  in  history  ;  of  these,  that  which  a  child  can  learn  in 
a  course  of  four  or  five  years'  vigorous  study  would  be 
as  a  drop  of  water  to  the  ocean.  It  would  be  an  easy 
matter,  to  set  an  examination  of  ten  seemingly  simple 
questions  in  history,  for  Mommsen,  Curtius,  Droysen, 
Bancroft,  and  other  eminent  historians,  which  they 
would  utterly  fail  to  pass.  How,  then,  can  we  judge  of 
a  child's  knowledge  by  asking  ten  questions  ?  The 
same  can  be  said  of  geography  and  the  natural  sciences. 
The  fact  is,  the  only  just  way  to  examine  pupils  is,  to 
find  out  what  the  teacher  has  taught,  and  her  manner 
and  method  of  teaching.  Examination  should  find  out 
what  a  child  does  know,  and  not  what  he  does  not  know. 
Suppose,  then,  that  in  the  example  just  mentioned,  the 


152  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

pupils  have  been  under  the  guidance  of  a  skillful  teacher, 
who  has  given  out,  one  after  another,  the  most  interest- 
ing subjects  to  be  found  in  history,  and  had  her  pupils 
read  all  they  could  find  in  various  books  about  them, 
and  after  taking  these  acquired  treasures  of  knowledge, 
and  arranging  the  events  in  logical  order,  had  finally 
had  the  children  write  out  in  good  English  the  whole 
story.  The  test  of  such  work  would  simply  be,  to  re- 
quest the  pupils  to  tell  orally,  or  on  paper,  all  they 
knew  about  Columbus,  Walter  Raleigh,  Bunker  Hill,  or 
any  other  interesting  subject  they  have  studied. 

It  is  very  easy,  for  one  accustomed  to  such  examina- 
tions, to  judge  of  the  true  teaching  power  of  the  teacher 
by  the  written  papers.  If  meaningless  words  have  been 
memorized,  if  there  is  a  lack  of  research,  investigation, 
and  original  thought,  the  results  will  be  painfully  ap- 
parent. Whatever  the  teacher  has  done,  or  failed  to  do, 
can  be  readily  comprehended  by  an  expert  in  examina- 
tion. In  the  same  way  geography  and  the  sciences  may 
be  examined.  The  test  of  spelling,  penmanship,  com- 
position, punctuation,  and  the  power  to  use  correct 
language,  can  be  tested  in  no  better  way  than  by  the 
writing  of  such  compositions  as  these. 

Examinations  should  not  be  made  the  test  of  fitness 
for  promotion.  If  the  teacher  really  teaches,  and  faith- 
fully watches  the  mental  growth  of  her  pupils,  through 
the  work  of  one  or  two  years,  she  alone  is  the  best 
judge  of  the  fitness  of  her  pupils  to  do  the  work  of  the 
next  grade.  If  she  does  not  teach,  it  is  impossible  for 
her  to  prepare  her  pupils  for  advanced  work.  The  great 
question  for  the  supervisor  to  decide  is,  Has  the  teacher 


EX  A  MINA  TIONS.  1 5  3 

the  ability  to  instruct  the  children  in  the  proper 
manner  and  by  the  best  methods  ?  Is  it  possible  for  a 
supervisor  to  find  out  in  one  hour,  by  a  series  of  set 
questions,  more  than  the  teacher,  who  watches  care- 
fully the  development  of  her  pupils  for  one  or  two 
years  ? 

Those  who  understand  children,  will  readily  appreci- 
ate the  excitement  and  strain  under  which  they  labor, 
when  their  fate  depends  upon  the  correct  answering  of 
ten  disconnected  questions.  It  is  well  known  to  you, 
that  some  of  the  best  pupils,  generally  do  their  worst  in 
the  confusion  that  attends  such  highly-wrought  nervous 
states.  How  much  better,  then,  is  it  to  take  the  entire 
work  of  the  pupil  for  the  whole  year,  than  the  results  of 
one  hour,  under  such  adverse  conditions  ? 

Again,  examinations  demand  more  than  the  children 
can  perform.  What  teacher  ever  received  a  class  from 
a  lower  grade,  fully  prepared  for  the  work  fixed  by 
the  examination  for  her  grade  ?  I  have  never  found 
one.  Supposing  children  have  been  in  the  school  three 
or  four  years  under  poor  teaching,  and  do  not  know 
anything  thoroughly — cannot  read,  write,  reckon,  or 
think.  Now  the  teacher  who  takes  such  poorly  pre- 
pared pupils,,  must  choose  one  of  two  courses.  She 
must  do  the  children  under  her  charge  the  greatest 
possible  good,  by  teaching  them  thoroughly  what  they 
have  failed  to  learn,  and  then  have  them  fail  entirely 
of  passing  the  uniform  examinations  ;  or  by  sheer  force 
of  verbal  memory,  the  paragraphs,  pages,  and  proposi- 
tions necessary  for  the  test,  may  be  put  into  their 
minds.     **  Having,"  says  Spencer,  **  by  our  method  in- 


154  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

duced  helplessness,  we  straightway  make  helplessness 
the  reason  for  our  method,'* 

Perfect  freedom  should  be  given  the  teacher  to  do 
the  best  work  in  her  own  way.  That  is,  the  highest 
good  of  the  child  should  be  the  sole  aim  of  the  teacher, 
without  the  slightest  regard  for  false  standards.  The 
teacher  who  strives  for  examinations  and  promotions, 
can  never  really  teach.  The  only  true  motive  that  should 
govern  the  teacher,  must  spring  from  the  truth,  found  in 
the  nature  of  the  child's  mind  and  the  subject  taught. 

The  purpose  of  the  superintendent's  examination 
should  be,  to  ascertain  whether  the  principals  under  his 
charge,  have  the  requisite  ability  and  knowledge  to 
organize,  supervise,  and  teach  a  large  school.  The  ex- 
aminations of  the  principal,  should  test  the  teaching 
power  of  his  teachers  ;  and  lastly,  the  teacher  should 
test,  by  examinations,  the  mental  growth  of  her  pupils. 
This  is  the  true  economical  system  of  responsibility. 
First,  ascertain  whether  superintendent,  principal,  and 
teacher  can  be  trusted,  and  then  trust  them. 

The  answer  to  this  proposition,  I  have  heard  a 
thousand  times.  ''Your  plan  would  be  good  enough, 
if  we  had  good  teachers.  The  fault  is,  that  the  teachers 
are  so  poor  we  cannot  trust  them.  If  we  did  not  ex- 
amine them  in  this  way,  they  would  absolutely  do 
nothing."  The  fallacy  of  this  answer  may  be  exposed 
in  two  ways.  First,  a  uniform  examination  of  discon- 
nected questions,  prevents  the  good  teacher  from  exer- 
cising her  art  ;  second,  the  poor  teacher  will  never  be 
able  to  see  the  wide  margin  between  good  work  and 
that  which  she  does,  until  the  true  test  of  real  teaching 


EXAM  IN  A  TIONS.  1 5  5 

is  placed  before  her.  There  has  been  legislation  enough 
for  poor  teachers  and  poor  teaching.  Give  the  good 
teachers  a  chance  !  The  testimony  of  countless  good 
teachers  has  been  uniform  in  this  respect.  When  asked, 
"  Why  don't  you  do  better  work  ?'*  **  Why  don't  you 
use  the  methods  taught  in  normal  schools,  and  advocated 
by  educational  periodicals  and  books  ?'*  The  answer  is, 
"  We  cannot  do  it.  Look  at  our  course  of  study.  In 
three  weeks,  or  months,  these  children  will  be  examined. 
We  have  not  one  moment  of  time  to  spend  in  real  teach- 
ing !"  No  wonder  that  teaching  is  a  trade  and  not  an 
art  !  No  wonder  there  is  little  or  no  demand  for  books 
upon  the  science  and  art  of  teaching,  such  as  ''  Payne's 
Lectures,"  etc.  The  demand  fixed  by  examiners  is  for 
cram,  and  not  for  an  art  ;  and  so  long  as  the  demand 
exists,  so  long  will  the  teacher's  mind  shrivel  and  dwarf, 
in  the  everlasting  treadmill  that  has  no  beginning  or 
end,  and  the  more  it  turns  the  more  it  creaks  !  So 
long,  too,  will  this  tinkering  of  immortal  souls  go  on  ! 
Teachers  often  complain  of  their  social  position,  their 
salaries,  and  the  lack  of  sympathy  in  the  public.  '*  The 
fault,''  dear  teachers,  **  is  not  in  our  stars,  but  in  our- 
selves, that  we  are  underlings."  Instead  of  stubbornly 
standing,  and  obstinately  denying  that  there  is  no  need 
of  reform,  and  that  all  so-called  new  methods  are  worth- 
less ;  let  us  honestly,  earnestly,  prayerfully  study  the 
great  science  of  teaching.  Let  us  learn,  and  courage- 
ously apply  the  truths  that  shall  set  us  free  ;  and  the 
day  will  soon  come  when  the  teacher  will  lead  society, 
and  mould  opinion. 


TALK    XXIV. 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT. 


The  highest  intellectual  result  brought  about  by 
elementary  instruction  is,  the  power  of  attention  to 
those  objects  which  have  the  greatest  influence  in  de- 
veloping the  mind.  It  may  also  be  said,  that  higher 
education  consists  in  developing  that  power  of  the  mind, 
which  enables  it  to  concentrate  all  its  strength  upon 
subjects  within  itself.  To  use  a  psychological  term,  the 
first  conscious  work  is  upon  the  object-object ;  the 
second,  upon  the  subject-object.  The  greatest  effect, 
either  of  attention  or  concentration,  is  brought  about  by 
an  effort  of  the  will,  to  withdraw  everything  from  the 
consciousness  except  the  object  or  subject  of  thought. 
The  highest  result  of  all  government,  from  whatsoever 
influence  it  may  come,  is  found  in  the  most  complete 
control  of  the  reason  over  the  will,  in  all  mental  and 
moral  acts.  Before  the  child  can  reason,  the  mother 
must  be  the  child's  will  ;  but  neither  mother  nor 
teacher  should  ever  usurp  the  place  of  reason.  Just  as 
soon  as  a  child  can  act  from  his  own  right  impulse,  he 
should  be  allowed  to  do  so.  Many  a  prudent  parent 
has  remained  the  will  of  the  child,  until  the  time  when 
self-control  can  be  acquired  had  past,  and  the  moment 
the  guidance  of  the  parent  failed,  the  child,  often  found 
himself  drifting  on  the  sea  of  life,  a  hopeless  wreck. 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT,  .  157 

The  highest  motive  of  school  government,  is  to  give 
the  child  the  power  and  necessary  reason  to  control 
himself.  The  immediate  and  direct  motive  of  school 
government  is,  the  limitation  of  mental  power  to  at- 
tention. That  order  is  the  best,  which  leads  the. child 
to  withdraw  attention  from  all  other  objects  except  the 
one  in  hand.  Whether  the  purpose  be  thinking,  or  per- 
forming some  act  of  skill,  or  both,  the  direct  motive 
of  order  remains  the  same.  Attention  does  not  consist 
of  the  attitude  of  the  body,  but  of  the  mind.  Pupils 
may  stare  intently  at  a  book,  may  be  paying  the  strictest 
attention,  to  the  eyes  of  the  teacher,  while  their  minds 
are  **  over  the  hills  and  far  away."  There  is  a  vast 
difference  between  real  and  apparent  attention.  In  the 
one,  the  thing  attended  to,  fills  and  controls  the  con- 
sciousness ;  in  the  other,  the  body  may  be  in  correct 
attitude,  the  eye  fixed  upon  the  object,  the  picture  of 
the  object  may  be  upon  the  retina,  but  the  presence  of 
other  objects  of  thought  in  the  consciousness,  shuts 
out  all  perception  of  the  object  seen.  Attention  may  be 
impelled  by  a  desire  springing  from  within,  from  the 
attractiveness  of  the  object ;  or  compelled  from  with- 
out, by  the  will  of  the  teacher,  who  expresses  her  will 
by  means  of  rewards  and  punishments.  The  first  great 
question,  then,  for  the  teacher  to  decide,  is.  To  what  ex- 
tent can  the  attractiveness  of  the  object  be  made  to  con- 
trol attention  ?  That  is,  in  what  measure  can  the  in- 
terest of  the  child,  and  the  love  of  work,  be  excited  and 
quickened,  so  as  to  reduce  the  amount  of  rewards  and 
punishments  ? 

The  natural  growth  of  the  child,  both  mentally  and 


158  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING, 

physically,  is  a  healthy,  happy  growth.  That  the 
growth  may  be  natural,  the  means  of  growth  must  be 
exactly  adapted  at  every  step,  to  the  varying  conditions 
of  the  child.  No  one  will  deny  this  proposition,  so  far 
as  it  relates  to  physical  growth.  Food,  exercise,  and 
clothing,  that  meet  the  exact  wants  of  the  child,  pro- 
duce the  best  conditions  for  health  and  strength.  I  be- 
lieve that  this  truth  applies  with  equal  power  to  the 
mind  as  to  the  body.  We  have  many  criticisms  upon 
the  so-called  natural  teaching,  as  though  it  were  a  kind 
of  teaching,  that  led  the  child  to  grow  in  some  wild,  un- 
certain way,  following  his  own  propensities  and  desires. 
This  is  one  of  the  many  shallow  criticisms  that  emanate 
from  those  who  are  troubled  by  the  New  Education, 
and  not  having  studious  habits,  that  would  enable  them 
to  study  thoroughly  the  reasons  for  better  teaching,  they 
reply  to  everything  by  stale,  ready-made,  stock  argu- 
ments. Natural  teaching,  means  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  the  exact  adaptation  of  the  subject  taught,  to  the 
learning  mind  ;  and  that  adaptation,  leads  the  mind  to 
grow  in  a  normal,  healthy  way.  As  that  physical  exercise 
which  is  best  suited  to  the  growth  and  strength  of  the 
body  always  delights  the  heart,  so  the  natural  exercise 
of  the  mind  must  bring  a  still  higher  pleasure. 

Play,  is  God's  elementary  method  of  training  the  child 
to  work.  The  kindergarten  is  founded  upon  the  child's 
intense  love  of  play.  Who  ever  saw  anything  but  con- 
stant delight  on  the  faces  of  the  little  children  in  a 
true  kindergarten,  where  hands  and  heads  and  hearts, 
are  in  continual  harmonious  action  ?  The  secret  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  child's  life  consists  of  building,  weav- 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT,  159 

ing,  drawing,  taking  apart  and  putting  together,  and 
at  the  same  time  feeding  the  imagination  for  higher 
flights.  When  should  this  delightful  play  and  work 
stop  ?  When  the  primary  teacher  meets  him  at  the  door 
of  a  castle,  fetters  his  active  limbs  to  a  hard  seat,  and 
imprisons  his  expanding  mind  in  a  narrow  cell  walled 
by  unmeaning  hieroglyphics  ?  No  !  A  thousand  times 
no  !  It  is  cruelty  to  stop  the  blessed  work  done  in  the 
kindergarten.  Froebel  said,  that  the  principles  he  dis- 
covered and  advocated,  when  thoroughly  applied,  would 
revolutionize  the  world  ;  and  he  was  right.  In  the  kin- 
dergarten, is  the  seed-corn  and  germination  of  the  New 
Education  and  the  new  life.  The  seed  has  been 
planted,  the  buds  and  flowers  are  turned  toward  the  sun: 
let  not  the  chilling  frost  of  traditional  teaching  blight 
and  wither  them.  One  and  all  of  the  true  principles  of 
education  are  applied  in  the  kindergarten  ;  these  prin- 
ciples should  be  applied,  (simply  changing  the  applica- 
ion  to  adapt  it  to  different  stages  of  growth)  through 
all  education,  up  to  the  gates  of  heaven. 

The  struggle  of  development,  consists  in  acquiring 
knowledge  and  skill  so  thoroughly  that  it  can  sink  into 
the  automatic,  thus  leaving  the  mind  free  for  new  at- 
tainments. The  conflict  between  the  kindergarten  and 
the  old  education,  is  the  strife  for  the  mastery,  between 
two  vastly  different  ideals — the  ideal  of  quantity  learning 
and  the  ideal  of  harmonious  mental  growth.  The  one 
must  be  compelled,  as  it  always  has  been,  by  the  rod 
or  ignoble  emulation  ;  the  other  finds  its  glowing  im- 
pulses in  the  inwar  i  joy  of  living,  and  growing,  just  as 
the  mind's  Creator  designed,  when  He  planted  in  the 


l6o  NOTES   OF    TALKS   ON   TEACHING. 

human  mind,  the  vast  possibilities  to  be  realized  by  the 
application  of  His  truth.  I  mean  by  this,  that  all  the 
teaching  in  our  schools,  if  Nature  be  followed,  will 
bring  decided  and  permanent  pleasure.  One  great 
reason  why  we  continue  unnatural  teaching,  may  be 
found  in  the  fact,  that  the  strongest  tendencies  and  im- 
pulses of  beautiful  child-nature  are  utterly  ignored. 
Every  child  loves  nature  :  the  birds,  flowers,  and  beasts 
are  a  source  of  exhaustless  curiosity  and  wonder.  Carry 
this  love  into  the  school-room,  bring  the  child  closer 
and  closer  to  the  thought  of  God  and  His  creatures, 
and  that  implanted  desire  to  know  more  and  more  of 
His  works,  will  never  cease. 

Reading,  writing,  spelling,  numbers,  are  simply  the 
means  of  getting  an  education,  and  they  may  be  all 
beautifully  taught,  under  the  delightful  stimulus  of  that 
which  a  child  loves.  The  child  has  a  strong  desire  to 
express  his  thoughts  in  the  concrete,  by  re-creating  the 
forms  that  come  into  his  mind.  He  makes  mud-pies, 
hills  and  valleys,  fences  and  houses,  with  childish  glee. 
Carry  this  same  impelling  tendency  into  the  school- 
room ;  lay  the  foundation  of  the  grand  science  of  ge- 
ometry, by  moulding  in  clay.  Next  to  the  child's  love 
for  making  forms,  comes  the  joy  he  finds  in  drawing  ;  a 
child  loves  to  draw,  as  well  as  if  not  better,  than  he  loves 
to  talk.  Continue  this  love,  by  putting  crayon  or  pencil 
in  his  hand  as  soon  as  he  enters  school,  and  give  him 
free  room  to  express  all  he  can.  These  tendencies  are  the 
thrifty  roots  of  true  mental  and  moral  growth  ;  foster  and 
nurture  them  by  good  teaching,  and  soon  we  will  have  a 
new  and  better  race  of  men.     It  is  a  hard  thing  to  say, 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  i6i 

but  a  strong  belief  in  the  immense  possibilities  in  the 
human  mind  to  grow  far  beyond  any  past  attainments, 
compels  me  to  express  what  I  believe,  and  that  is,  that 
most  primary  teaching,  crushes  the  best  and  highest  ten- 
dencies of  the  mind,  blights  and  withers  imagination, 
stultifies  reason,  and  then  (by  artificial  methods)  strives 
earnestly  and  honestly  to  build  up  the  mind,  on  this 
ruined  foundation. 

I  may  have  wandered  far  from  my  subject ;  but  the 
point  I  wish  to  make,  is,  that  the  attractiveness  of  the 
subject,  if  naturally  taught,  will  create  a  genuine 
enthusiastic  love  for  study,  and  develop  the  closest  and 
most  prolonged  attention,  thus  making  the  will  of  the 
teacher  a  secondary  and  subordinate  element  in  school 
government.  Opposed  to  this,  is  the  teaching  of  a 
quantity  of  knowledge,  and  the  acquisition  of  skill,  with- 
out regard  to  natural  adaptation.  So  far  as  my  experi- 
ence goes,  most  children  are  reading  in  books  far  above 
their  range  and  power  of  thinking.  They  are  going 
through  the  arithmetic,  with  an  insufficient  knowledge  of 
the  elements.  They  are  learning  page  after  page  of 
generalizations  and  facts,  that  mean  little  or  nothing  to 
them.  The  teachers  are  preparing  words  for  the  ex- 
amination, and  neglecting  to  prepare  the  child  for  the 
struggle  of  life. 

Such  teaching  inust^  as  I  have  said,  be  enforced  by  the 
hope  of  rewards,  or  the  fear  of  punishment.  There  is 
no  alternative.  The  glittering  bauble  of  a  high  mark, 
or  a  diploma,  must  lure  the  fainting  and  famished  pupil 
on,  or  the  rod  at  his  back  must  drive  him.  Without 
these  incentives    there    is    no    motion.     Compare    the 


l62  NOTES  OF    TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

Sterility  and  barrenness  of  stupid  word  learning,  with  the 
richness  and  variety  which  the  full  action  of  all  the 
mental  powers— observation,  judgment,  imagination, 
and  reason— causes,  and  we  need  not  seek  farther  for  the 
motives  that  induce  the  children,  under  one  kind  of  in- 
struction to  hate  school  and  learning  ;  and  under  the 
other,  to  love  school  work  with  all  their  hearts. 

One  of  the  stale,  old,  often-repeated,  stock  arguments 
is,  that  the  methods  used,  are  those  of  entertainment  and 
pleasure;  that  the  child  must  be  trained  to  face  the 
stern  realities  of  life,  by  strict  discipline  and  hard  work. 
This  objection  is  so  venerable,  and  at  the  same  time  so 
stupid,  that  it  is  hardly  worth  the  time  it  takes,  to 
answer  it.  Because  the  mind  finds  pleasure  in  natural 
growth,  ergo^  the  teaching  should  be  unnatural,  in  order 
to  discipline  its  powers.  As  if  the  road  to  success  in 
life,  lay  in  tormenting  the  child  with  all  the  sharp  thorns 
and  hard  pebbles  that  can  be  placed  therein  !  What 
man  ever  made  a  true  success  in  this  world,  who  did  not 
love  his  work,  and  pursue  it  with  a  genuine  enthusiasm  ? 
Education  is  the  generation  of  power  ;  power  to  over- 
come obstacles,  power  to  toil,  and  struggle,  and  fight. 
There  are  plenty  of  real  obstacles,  that  lie  in  the  pathway 
of  human  development  and  progress,  without  the  inven- 
tion of  a  single  artificial  one.  The  entire  purpose  of 
education  consists  of  training  the  child  to  work,  to 
work  systematically,  to  love  work,  and  to  put  his  brains 
and  heart  into  work.  The  more  a  child  loves  work,  the 
more  energy  he  will  bring  to  it.  The  more  brains  he 
puts  into  it,  the  better,  and  the  more  economically  it  will 
be  done. 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  163 

I  claim  two  things  :  First,  that  there  is  not  one  moment 
to  spend  upon  anything,  for  the  mere  sake  of  discipline, 
that  has  not  a  practical  use  in  the  mind*s  upbuilding  ; 
second,  that  if  the  work  be  adapted  to  the  state  of 
mental  and  physical  power  and  ability  ;  if  every  onward 
movement  brings  success  ;  if  the  work  be  real  [that  is 
upon  real  things  and  not  drudgery]  ;  then  let  the  child 
learn  to  do  by  doing  ;  for  the  pleasure  of  doing  and  its 
resultant  successes  best  fits  a  man  to  control  himself,  and 
master  all  the  difficulties  and  obstacles  that  lie  before  him. 

I  am  aware  that  I  have  been  painting  an  ideal  school, 
under  ideal  teaching.  Many  of  you,  no  doubt,  are  anx- 
iously asking  the  question,  **  What  shall  we  do,  who  are 
training  children  who  have  not  had  the  benefits  of  the 
kindergarten  and  the  best  primary  teaching  "?  I  must  re- 
fer you,  for  the  answer  to  this  important  question,  to  the 
other  means  of  limiting  attention  ;  i.e.^  your  wills  used 
in  governing  children,  who  are  not  attracted  by  their 
work.  **  Fear  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom.'*  The  first 
important  element  on  your  part,  necessary  to  govern  a 
school  well,  is  self-control  ;  the  second,  courage.  The 
children,  after  the  innocence  of  the  first  year  is  past, 
have  formed  a  habit  that  leads  them  to  govern  you,  if 
you  cannot  govern  them.  They  study  you,  as  soldiers 
do  a  fortress  that  they  intend  to  attack.  If  there  is  one 
weak  point  indicated  by  your  presence,  in  movement, 
attitude,  or  expression,  they  will  make  the  charge  there. 
If  you  can  be  teased,  irritated,  or  made  angry  they, 
will  find,  for  want  of  better  things,  the  greatest  pleasure 
in  sticking  pins  (figurative)  into  the  weak  places  of 
your  moral  anatomy.     If  you  threaten,  they  take  great 


i64    '  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING, 

delight  in  listening  to  your  threats.  If  you  scold,  they 
will  invent  ways  of  perpetuating  the  process.  But  if 
they  see  in  you,  a  quiet,  unalterable  determination  to 
control  them,  softened  and  strengthened  by  a  great  love 
for  children,  in  most  cases,  their  surrender  will  be  com- 
plete and  permanent ;  provided  you  have  already  at 
hand,  some  nutritious  and  tasteful  food,  in  the  way  of 
good  teaching  and  training.  Give  them  something  to 
do,  the  first  moment  you  enter  the  schoolroom.  Show 
them  how  skilful  you  are,  in  all  points  of  technical  train- 
ing, without  being  ostentatious,  and  they  will  soon  for- 
get their  desire  to  badger  and  control  you,  in  the 
pleasure  of  doing. 

But  perfect  courage  and  self-control  are  ideal  again. 
**  What  if  I  haven't  these  qualities  ?"  you  ask.  **  How 
shall  I  meet  a  rebellious  boy  V  You  see,  I  cannot  avoid 
the  great  question  of  corporal  punishment.  Putting  it 
in  its  right  place,  it  is,  at  best,  but  a  poor  substitute  for 
a  teacher's  lack  of  moral  power  and  skill.  If  the 
choice  between  anarchy,  misrule,  and  comparative 
order  must  be  made,  I  am  bound  to  recommend,  in  such 
cases,  the  judicious  use  of  a  good  rattan.  Corporal 
punishment  is  far  preferable  to  scolding  ;  that  turns  a 
schoolroom  into  a  perpetual  washing-day.  It  is  prefer- 
able to  many  inventions  that  have  been  discovered  to 
avoid  straightforward  punishment — such  as  shutting 
children  up  in  dark  closets,  making  them  stand  for 
hours  in  the  floor,  sending  them  home,  or  keeping  them 
after  school.  If  you  punish  in  anger,  you  simply  en- 
hance the  difficulty.  Anger  begets  anger.  The  sting 
of  the  rod  must  be  accompanied  by  the  genuine  sym- 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT,  165 

pathy  of  real  love.  This  is  one  of  the  painful  subjects 
which  must  be  met  by  every  teacher,  until  the  kinder- 
garten and  true  teaching,  have  done  their  effectual  work 
with  the  little  children.  **  Fear  is  the  beginning  of 
wisdom,"  but  "  Perfect  love  casteth  out  fear  l" 


TALK    XXV. 


MORAL     TRAINING. 


No  matter  how  much  educators  may  differ  in  regard 
to  the  means  and  methods  of  teaching,  upon  one  point 
there  is  substantial  agreement  ;  viz.  that  the  end  and 
aim  of  all  education,  is  the  development  of  character. 
There  is  also,  little  or  no  difference  of  opinion,  in  regard 
to  the  elements  that  form  the  common  ideal  of 
character.  Love  of  truth,  justice,  and  mercy  ;  benevo- 
lence, humility,  energy,  patience,  and  self-control,  are 
recognized  the  world  over,  as  some  of  the  essentials  that 
should  govern  human  action.  True  character  is  recog- 
nized and  felt,  by  all  classes  and  conditions  of  society 
though  they  may  be  incapable  of  its  analysis.  Just  as 
the  lower  types  of  intellect  feel  the  power  of  the  few 
masterpieces  of  art,  without  knowing  its  source. 

All  the  knowledge  and  skill  of  an  individual,  all  he 
thinks,  knows,  and  does,  is  manifested  in  his  character. 
Character  is  the  summation  of  all  these  manifestations. 
Character  is  the  expression  of  all  that  is  in  the  mind, 
and  it  may  be  analyzed  into  habits.  A  habit  is  the 
tendency  and  desire  to  do  that  which  we  have  repeatedly 
done  before.  A  habit  then,  consists  in  doing,  the 
primary  foundation  of  which,  is  to  be  found  in  the  pos- 
sibilities for  action  that  lie  latent  in  the  mind  of  the 


MORAL    TRAINING.      ♦  167 

new-born  child.  The  environment  of  the  child, 
determines  the  kind,  quality,  and  direction  of  its  mental 
action.  Education  adapts  the  environment,  by  limiting 
it  to  those  circumstances  which  lead  the  mind  to  act  in 
the  right  manner,  and  in  the  right  direction.  The 
mother  and  teacher,  be  it  through  ignorance  or  knowl- 
edge, determine  the  doing  of  the  child.  The  true 
teacher  leads  the  child  to  do  that  which  ought  to  be 
done.  The  famous  principle  of  Comenius  ;  **  Things 
that  have  to  be  done,  should  be  learned  by  doing  them,** 
includes  in  its  category,  the  whole  truth  that  should 
govern  every  parent  and  teacher  in  building  the  char- 
acter of  a  child.  Everything  that  may  determine 
action,  be  it  religious  precepts,  moral  maxims,  the  best 
influences,  or  whatever  of  good  may  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  child,  find  their  limitations  in  what  they  in- 
spire, and  stimulate  the  child  to  do. 

The  opinion  prevails  among  many  teachers,  that 
intellectual  development,  is,  by  its  nature,  separate  and 
distinct  from  moral  training.  Of  all  the  evils  in  our 
schools,  this  terrible  mistake  is  productive  of  the 
greatest.  The  powers  of  the  mind  determine  by  their 
limitations  all  human  action.  There  is  no  neutral 
ground.  Every  thing  done  has  a  moral,  or  immoral 
tendency.  That  is,  doing,  forms  by  repetition,  a  habit, 
and  habits  make  up  character.  Let  no  one  think  that 
I  am  trenching  on  religious  or  theological  grounds.  I 
simply  repeat  what  I  have  said  before  ;  the  greatest 
truths  of  religion,  the  highest  forms  of  morality,  nature 
and  art  with  all  their  beauty,  can  do  no  more  than 
stimulate,  inspire,  direct,  and  fix  mental  action.     This 


l6^  NOTES  OF  TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

action  may  be  right,  or  wrong.  If  right,  it  leads  up- 
ward to  all  that  is  good,  true,  and  beautiful.  If  wrong, 
it  leads  down  to  falsehood,  wickedness,  and  sin.  No 
teacher  should  say,  *'  I  train  the  intellect,'*  and  leave 
moral  and  spiritual  teaching  to  others.  Every  act  of 
the  teacher,  his  manner,  attitude,  character,  all  that  he 
does,  or  says,  all  that  he  calls  upon  his  pupils  to  do  or 
say,  develops  in  a  degree,  moral  or  immoral  tendencies. 
I  am  aware  that  this  is  a  very  strong  statement.  I  may 
not  be  able  to  prove  it,  entirely  to  your  satisfaction,  but 
I  believe  it  with  all  my  heart,  and  will  try  to  give  you 
reasons  for  the  faith  that  is  in  me. 

First,  and  foremost  of  the  habits  to  be  acquired,  is 
that  of  self-control,  and  to  self-control,  we  shall  all 
agree,  every  act  in  educating  the  child  should  lead. 
The  vices  that  ruin  mankind,  are  the  baneful  fruitage  of 
the  lack  of  self-control  ;  and  generous,  humanity-loving 
people,  spend  millions  to  mitigate  the  evils  arising  from 
this  lack.  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  ton  of 
cure  !  One  dollar,  spent  for  Kindergartens,  wiill  do 
more  in  the  cause  of  temperance,  than  thousands  for 
reform  schools,  or  Washingtonian  homes.  The  mind 
is  controlled  by  three  causes.  First,  by  the  will  of 
another.  Second,  by  one's  own  desire,  whether  right 
or  wrong.  Third,  by  reason  ;  /.^.,  that  a  course  of 
action  is  knowingly  right,  and  therefore  must  be  taken. 
As  I  said,  in  the  talk  upon  school  government,  the 
mother  and  teacher  must  be  the  will  of  the  child,  until 
the  child's  reason,  or  knowledge  of  right,  leads  it  to  do 
right  acts.  Otherwise,  its  own  unreasoning  desire  will 
govern  the  will  from  the  first.     I  have  known  many  a 


MORAL    TRAINING,  1^9 

child,  tired  and  jaded  by  the  care  of  controlling  its 
parents,  which  control  began,  when  it  first  cried  for  a 
light,  and  ^<?/ it  ;  and  continued,  up  to  the  time  that  it 
came  under  the  influence  of  the  sweet  strong  will  of  a 
kind-hearted  teacher  ;  I  have  known  such  children,  to 
act  as  though  a  great  burden  was  rolled  from  their  little 
shoulders,  as  they  sat  and  worked,  at  last  in  perfect 
peace,  and  quietness  ;  but  alas,  only  to  go  home  and 
resume  the  reins  of  government  !  The  child  finds  true 
happiness  alone,  under  the  dominion  of  a  firm,  steady, 
reasonable  will  outside  of  himself. 

But  there  is  a  dangerous  and  delicate  point,  beyond 
which,  the  will  of  the  parent  or  teacher  must  not  be 
carried.  The  moment  a  child  can  act  from  a  dictate  of  his 
own  reason,  that  tells  him  something  is  right,  the  super- 
imposed will  of  the  parent  should  give  way  to  the  child's 
own  volition.  The  law,  that  we  learn  to  do  by  doing, 
comes  in  here  with  full  force.  The  importance  of 
training  the  will  by  developing  the  knowledge  of  right, 
cannot  be  overrated.  The  knowledge  of  right,  comes 
from  leading  the  mind  to  discover  the  truth.  The  truth 
is  of  no  use,  unless  it  is  expressed  in  action.  The  op- 
portunities for  this  action,  at  home,  and  in  school, 
are  innumerable.  These  opportunities  should  be  seized 
upon,  and  used,  by  the  mother  or  teacher,  as  means  of 
training  self-control.  I  cannot  repeat  often  enough,  the 
great  truth,  that  we  learn  to  do  by  doing.  If  a  child  be 
selfish,  he  has  acquired  the  habit  by  selfish  acts.  The 
wrong  tendency  may,  it  is  true,  be  inborn,  but  the 
habit,  is  acquired  by  selfish  doing.  A  bad  habit  can  be 
cured,  only,  by  repetitions  of  good  acts,  directly  op- 


I70  NOTES  OF    TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

posed  to  it.  Thus,  a  selfish  child,  may  be  given  many 
opportunities  to  perform  benevolent,  and  generous  acts. 
Cruelty,  may  be  turned  into  loving-kindness  and  mercy, 
in  the  same  way.  In  the  school,  we  find  all  the  primary 
elements  of  society,  but  lacking  the  conventionalities 
of  the  grown-up  world  ;  and  here,  the  child  acts  out  his 
nature,  freely.  The  eager,  searching  eye  of  the  teacher, 
fixed  upon  the  good  of  the  child's  soul,  rather  than  the 
quantity  of  knowledge  to  be  gained,  sees  through  the 
mass  of  her  little  ones,  into  the  weakness  of  each  in- 
dividual. The  order,  the  writing,  the  reading,  the 
number  lessons,  the  play-ground,  all  furnish  countless 
occasions,  where  the  child  may  be  led  to  act  in  the  right 
way,  from  right  motives.  Selfishness  may  be  turned  to 
benevolence,  cruelty  to  love,  deceit  to  honesty,  sullen- 
ness  to  cheerfulness,  conceit  to  humility,  and  obstinacy 
to  compliance,  by  the  careful  leading  of  the  child's 
heart  to  the  right  emotion.  But,  in  this  work,  the 
most  responsible  of  all  human  undertakings,  we  cannot 
afford  to  experiment  ;  there  is  one  indispensable  re- 
quirement,— the  teacher  must  know  the  child^  and  its  nature. 

The  true  method  of  teaching,  is  the  exact  adaptation 
of  the  subject  taught,  or  means  of  growth,  to  the  learn- 
ing mind.  The  mind  can  best  grow,  in  only  one  way. 
If  the  adaptation  of  the  subject  to  the  mind  is  wrong, 
the  action  of  the  mind  is  impaired,  and  weakened,  by 
ineffectual  attempts  to  grasp  it  ;  and  then  the  will  of 
the  teacher  is  obliged  to  come  in,  with  artificial  stimu- 
lants— to  unhealthy  mental  action.  Under  such  con- 
ditions, real  essential  happiness,  that  must  come  from 
the  child's  right  emotions,  is  wanting  ;  and  the  subject 


MORAL    TRAINING.  171 

becomes  in  itself,  an  object  of  dislike  and  disgust  to  the 
child.  Such  teaching,  I  hold,  must  be,  of  its  very 
nature,  immoral.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  mind 
is  in  the  full  tide  of  healthy  normal  action,  when  it  loves 
what  it  does,  and  does  what  it  loves,  the  leading  power 
of  the  teacher,  in  right  directions,  is  enhanced  to  an 
incalculable  degree.  If  the  teacher  knows  the  child, 
and  her  heart  lies  close  to  the  child's  heart,  every  motion 
of  his  mental  and  moral  pulse,  every  desire  to  do  wrong, 
or  right,  will  always  be  felt  by  her.  However  much  the 
teacher  may  desire  to  help  the  child,  however  strong  her 
own  moral  or  religious  feelings  maybe,  wrong  methods, 
and  misapplied  teaching,  stand  as  formidable  barriers  be- 
tween herself  and  the  child.  Many  a  father  who  would 
have  given  his  life  for  his  boy,  has,  simply  because  he  did 
not  understand  his  child's  nature,  failed  in  his  method 
of  training,  and  driven  the  boy  to  ruin.  The  will  of  a 
parent,  may  deprive  the  child  of  the  use  of  his  reason  so 
long,  that  when  the  controlling  will  is  removed,  the 
child  finds  himself  weak,  and  helpless  ;  a  prey  to  any 
stronger  will  that  may  chose  to  master  him. 

Primary  education  consists,  as  I  have  said,  in  training 
the  power  of  attention.  The  attractiveness  of  the 
object  attended  to,  controls  the  will.  The  desire  to 
attend,  is  thus  aroused,  making  it  possible  for  the  mind 
to  exert  more  and  more  power  in  such  acts,  until  the 
reason  comes  in  to  govern  the  will,  enabling  the  mind 
to  concentrate  itself  whenever  required.  The  boy  who 
is  trained  to  solve  a  difficult  problem,  by  a  long  and 
labored  struggle  with  the  thought,  stimulated  only  by 
the  desire  that  comes  from  former  successes  to  gain  a 


172  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

new  victory,  has  a  will  trained  by  reason  in  a  high 
degree.  You  may  say  that  this  boy,  notwithstanding 
his  power  in  one  direction,  might  perform  immoral  acts  ; 
and  you  are  right.  The  energy  generated  in  one  direc- 
tion, if  it  be  not  broadened  and  deepened  in  all  other 
right  ways,  may  be  fatal  to  the  welfare  of  the  possessor. 
Lead  and  train  a  child  to  do  one  good  thing  thoroughly, 
through  love  of  doing,  and  you  have  a  central  force  of 
moral  power,  that  can  be  turned  into  all  doing. 

Let  us  look  for  a  moment  on  the  other  side  of  this 
question.  God  has  so  created  the  mind,  that  healthy 
moral,  mental,  and  physical  exercise,  produces  pleasure  ; 
this  truth,  I  believe,  cannot  be  gainsaid.  If  the  work 
be  not  adapted  to  the  grasp  of  the  pupil,  this  pleasurable 
stimulant  is  lacking,  and  artificial  stimulants  must  be 
used.  I  have  discussed,  in  a  former  talk,  the  use  of  fear 
in  governing  children.  I  need  but  appeal  to  all  those, 
into  whose  heads  knowledge  has  been  driven  by  the 
terror  of  punishment,  to  obtain  the  strongest  testimony, 
that  such  a  course  invariably  disgusts  children  with 
learning,  and  defeats  the  ends  it  seeks  to  promote.  The 
ubiquitous  croaker  now  arises,  with  his  single,  ever 
reiterated  poser  :  "  Webster,  Clay,  Sumner,  and  all  our 
greatest,  were  educated  in  the  old  ways,  why  require 
better  methods  when  we  can  point  to  such  results  as 
these  ?"  My  dear  sir  ;  you  can  count,  it  is  true,  a  few 
saved  and  successful  men  and  women,  but  is  your 
power  of  calculation  great  enough,  to  count  the  failures, 
the  lost  ?  It  is  time  for  us,  teachers,  to  call  a  halt  ! 
All  about  us  are  men  and  women,  who  find  themselves, 
to-day,   crippled^   for  want  of  that  power  which  their 


MORAL    TRAINING.  1 73 

school-training  should  have  given  them.  You  feel  the 
same  lack,  and  so  do  I.  Now,  these  men  and  women, 
have  risen  up,  and  are  demanding  better  things  for  their 
children.  We  have  but  to  look,  to  see  the  hand-writing 
on  the  wall, — "Thou  art  weighed  in  the  balances,  and 
art  found  wanting/* 

The  other  artificial  stimulant,  is  the  hope  of  reward, 
in  the  shape  of  merits,  per  cents,  prizes  ; — glittering 
empty  baubles  ;  sugar-coated  but  bitter  pills  !  I  have 
not  time  to  point  out,  in  detail,  the  immoral  influences 
of  these  false  stimulants.  I  will  allude  to  one,  and  that 
is,  the  common  tendency  in  examinations  to  appro- 
priate other's  earnings.  How  common  this  is,  you  all 
know,  from  primary  school  to  college.  Ponies,  cuffs, 
hidden  slips  of  paper,  sly  glances  at  books,  promptings, 
and  the  thousand  and  one  means  to  present  stolen 
results  ;  all  testify  to  the  prevalence  of  this  evil.  This 
is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  systematic  training  in 
habits  of  dishonesty.  I  have  no  doubt,  that  many  of 
the  frauds  and  defalcations,  so  common  at  present  in 
this  country,  may  be  traced  directly  back  to  the  well- 
meant,  but  dishonest  training  in  the  school-room. 

Truth  should  govern  the  will,  and  the  great  work  of 
the  teacher  is,  to  guide  the  child  in  his  discoveries  of 
truth.  The  habit  of  searching,  finding,  and  using  the 
truth,  then,  is  one  of  the  first  importance.  Truth  sets 
the  child  free,  and  leads  him  to  the  source  of  all 
truth.  The  highest  freedom  is  obedience  to  God. 
The  learning  of  words,  and  pages  of  the  text-books, 
without  the  privilege  of  verifying  the  facts  and  gener- 
alizations there  given,  weakens    the  reasoning   power, 


174  NOTES   OF   TALKS   ON    TEACHING, 

that  should  be  developed  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
trolling the  will.  I  do  not  here  refer  to  religious 
truths,  but  to  the  habit  of  seeking  and  prizing  the 
truth,  wherever  found  in  the  branches  taught  in  our 
common  schools.  If  this  habit  is  formed  there,  it  will 
be  carried  into  the  affairs  of  politics,  and  society.  For 
instance  ;  a  man  so  trained,  will  vote,  not  because  he 
happens  to  belong  to  a  party,  or  because  he  believes  the 
ipse  dixit  of  a  leader  ;  but  because,  through  force  of 
habit,  he  will  discover  from  all  the  sources  of  informa- 
tion that  lie  in  his  power,  what  the  truth  really  is,  and 
exercise  his  right  to  vote  accordingly.  "  Put  that  you 
would  have  the  State,  into  the  school,"  is  an  old 
German  maxim.  Americans  must  learn  to  apply  this 
saying  in  a  vigorous  way,  or  our  politics,  from  their 
downward  tendency,  will  reach  in  no  far  distant  day, 
their  lowest  level. 

There  are  two  factors  in  education  ; — thought,  and 
expression.  Most  teaching,  is  the  training  of  the  skill 
to  express  thought,  with  little  or  no  regard  to  the 
thought  itself.  Precision,  is  an  indispensable  mode  of 
training  skill  in  writing,  drawing,  position,  and  accurate 
ways  of  acting  ;  but,  when  the  training  of  precision  is 
made  the  main  motive  of  school-work  ;  when  the  ways 
a  child  sits,  places  his  feet,  holds  his  hands,  stares  at  a 
book,  stands  up,  marches,  utters  a  sentence,  etc.  are 
the  be  all  and  end  all  in  the  teacher's  plan  of  work  ; 
then,  precision  invades  the  sacred  realm  of  thought 
evolution,  and  the  mind's  power  to  act  is  crushed  and 
crippled.  I  have  seen  schools  of  this  description  where 
the  results  would  be  grand,  if  the  systematic  clock-work- 


MORAL    TRAINING.  175 

like  operations  were  performed  with  puppets,  instead  of 
living  human  beings.  Such  training  educates  the 
willing  followers  of  demagogues  ;  prompt  to  march 
when  the  commanding  boss  gives  the  word. 

Conceit  is  another  outgrowth  of  this  quantity  ideal. 
The  spectacle  is  a  common  one,  of  a  young  man,  the 
model  of  his  class,  persistent  and  alert,  possessed  of  a 
powerful  verbal  memory,  which  enables  him  to  cram 
page  after  page  of  the  text-book,  distancing  all  com- 
petitors, carrying  off  all  the  class  honors,  and  finally  ; 
armed  with  his  sheepskin,  [his  Alma  Mater's  gracious 
indorsement  of  his  wonderful  attainments]  confidently 
stepping  out  into  the  world,  never  questioning  but  that 
he  will  conquer  in  the  new  life,  as  easily  as  he  did  in  the 
old.  But  the  first  spear-thrust  of  reality  shivers  his 
panoply  of  empty  words,  and  leaves  him  defenceless, 
before  the  rigorous  demands  of  an  uncompromising 
world.  **  The  long  perspective  of  our  life  is  truth,  and 
not  a  show  ;"  and  I  hold  that  sort  of  teaching,  in  the 
highest  degree  immoral,  which  crams  the  heads  of  our 
children,  with  the  unusable  pages  of  text-books,  and 
then  leads  them  to  suppose  that  they  are  gaining  real 
knowledge.  By  making  quantity  our  ideal,  we  develop 
and  foster  conceit  ;  and  conceit  is  one  of  the  most 
formidable  barriers  to  true  knowledge. 

Inspire  them  to  seek  earnestly  for  the  truth,  and 
develop  in  them,  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  human 
virtues — humility.  **  The  meek  shall  inherit  the  earth,'' 
said  the  Great  Teacher.  He  alone  is  really  learning, 
who  feels  the  immensity  of  the  truth,  and  realizes  that 
all  he  knows,  or  can  know,  in  this  world,  is  but  as  a  drop 


176  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

to  the  great  ocean  of  truth,  that  stretches  boundless  and 
fathomless  into  eternity.  The  teacher,  above  all  others, 
should  constantly  be  adding  to  his  store  of  knowledge  ; 
and  he  who  imagines  that  he  has  no  more  to  learn  in 
the  art  of  teaching,  is  fit  only  to  take  his  small  place 
among  other  fossils. 

Primary  education  consists,  as  I  have  repeatedly 
tried  to  show,  in  the  development  of  the  power  of  at- 
tention ;  and  it  will  be  plain  to  all,  that  the  selection 
of  the  objects  of  thought  and  attention  is  a  matter  of 
the  highest  importance.  The  things  presented  must  be 
pure,  good,  and  beautiful,  for  that  to  which  we  attend, 
comes  into  the  heart,  and  forms  the  basis  of  all  our 
thinking  and  imagination  ;  **  Out  of  the  heart  the 
mouth  speaketh."  Where  shall  we  look  for  the  highest 
source  of  the  good,  the  true,  and  the  beautiful  ?  To 
the  thoughts  of  God  in  nature.  The  study  of  nature, 
is  the  best  and  highest  foundation  for  morality,  and  a 
preparation  for  the  revealed  truth,  that  comes  to  the 
child  later  in  life.  Compare  the  drill  upon  hieroglyph- 
ics, empty  words,  and  meaningless  forms,  with  the  ob- 
servation of  trees,  flowers,  animals,  and  the  forms  of 
earth.  The  one  stimulates  thought,  and  fills  the  mind 
with  ideas  of  beauty  ;  the  other  crowds  the  mind  with 
useless,  ugly  forms  that  cannot,  from  their  very  nature, 
stimulate  it  to  renewed  action.  A  child's  mind,  filled 
with  that  which  is  pure,  and  good,  has  no  room  for 
wickedness  and  sin.  The  study  of  the  natural  sciences, 
is  one  of  the  best  means  of  bringing  about  this  result. 
Did  you  ever  observe  the  character  of  a  boy  who  early 
fell  in  love  with  nature,  and  who  spent  his  spare  hours 


MORAL    TRAINING.  177 

with  plants,  or  animals,  seeking  for  their  haunts, 
watching  their  habits,  and  making  collections  for  pres- 
ervation ?  Such  boys,  so  far  as  I  have  known,  are 
genuinely  good.  They  have  neither  the  time,  nor  the 
inclination,  for  evil  doing.  The  study  of  the  thoughts 
of  God  in  nature,  filling  the  mind,  as  it  does,  with 
things  of  beauty,  prepares  the  imagination  for  clear  and 
strong  conceptions  of  the  higher  and  spiritual  life. 

Let  no  one  misunderstand  me,  or  imagine  for  a  mo- 
ment, that  I  mean  to  limit  moral  training  to  these  sub- 
jects. Far  from  it.  I  am  only  trying  to  show,  how  all 
these  things  may  be  used  in  developing  true  character. 
Children  learn  very  much  by  imitation.  The  teacher, 
whether  good  or  bad,  leaves  his  everlasting  imprint  on 
every  child  under  his  care.  He  can  conceal  nothing 
from  the  intuitional  power  of  the  child.  Whatever  you 
are,  becomes  immortal  through  the  souls  of  your 
pupils.  The  precepts  of  a  true  teacher  have  immense 
weight  ;  but  the  example  has  a  still  greater. 

A  fact  very  much  bemoaned  and  bewailed  in  these 
times,  is,  that  children  love  to  read  trashy  literature  ; 
that  they  read  Dime  Novels,  sensational  newspapers, 
and  stories  like.  The  Robber  of  the  Bloody  Gulch  or 
The  Red  Handed  Pirate  of  the  Spanish  Main.  This  un- 
wholesome, and  vicious  tendency,  is  almost  wholly 
caused,  I  believe,  by  the  neglect  of  school  authorities  to 
furnish  a  generous  supply  of  pure,  interesting  literature, 
to  the  schools  under  their  charge.  I  know  a  superin- 
tendent of  schools  who  often  waxes  eloquent  over  the 
vices  engendered  by  such  reading.  I  once  visited  his 
schools,  and  found  his  pupils  learning  to  spell  column 


lyS  NOTES  OF   TALKS  ON    TEACHING. 

after  column,  and  page  after  page  of  words,  one-tenth 
of  which,  they  probably  never  would  use  in  their  lives. 
I  satisfied  myself  that  these  poor  victims  hardly  knew 
the  meaning  of  one  word,  the  forms  of  which  they  were 
struggling  over.  The  money  expended  for  those 
spelling-books,  would  have  purchased  a  rich  supply  of 
excellent  reading  ;  and  the  time  thrown  away  in  con- 
ning that  fearful  book,  if  used  in  reading  the  best 
literature,  would  have  rendered  unnecessary  some  of 
that  superintendent's  eloquent,  and  pathetic  periods,  in 
regard  to  the  miseries  caused  by  reading  sensational 
works.  An  entire  year  of  the  little  child's  life  is  gener- 
ally given  to  the  reading  of  one  book,  not  much  thicker 
than  my  little  finger.  Let  a  child  read  a  selection  twice 
or  three  times,  and  he  knows  every  word  by  heart.  He 
can  after  that  read  his  lesson  with  the  book  upside 
down.  I  once  tested  one  of  the  best  schools  in  this 
country.  The  pupils  read  very  well  indeed,  I  asked 
them  to  close  their  books  ;  and  as  soon  as  they  under- 
stood what  I  wanted,  they  repeated  every  word,  verbatim, 
with  great  gusto,  simply  by  my  reading  one  word,  any- 
where in  the  book.  They  knew  that  book  from  begin- 
ning to  end  ;  and  yet,  following  the  course  of  study, 
they  must  repeat  those  words,  over  and  over  again,  for 
five  long  months  !  We  are  paying  millions  of  dollars,  in 
this  country,  for  such  worse  than  stupid  and  useless 
repetitions.  A  class  will  read  a  Primary  Reader 
through  in  a  very  short  time.  The  cost  of  a  dozen 
different  series  of  books  [bought  by  the  school  authori- 
ties] is  not  so  great  as  the  price  paid,  by  the  children, 
for  the  Readers  of  a  single  series.     Every  school  can, 


MORAL    TRAlNlNC,  I79 

and  should  have  a  good  library,  made  of  sets  of  different 
books,  embracing  ;  the  best  Readers  ;  works  on  natural 
history  adapted  to  children,  such  as,  Prang's  little 
books,  "  Little  Folks  in  Feathers  and  Fur,"  "  Life  and 
Her  Children,"  and  "  The  Fairyland  of  Science  ;" 
primary  geographies,  like  "  Our  World,"  and  Guyot's 
"  Introduction  ;"  histories  ;  books  of  travel  ;  poetry  ; 
and  the  best  fiction.  In  my  experience,  it  is  the  easiest 
of  all  problems,  to  lead  children  to  read,  and  to  love  to 
read,  the  very  best  literature.  If  the  hours  devoted  to 
the  spelling-book  ;  to  useless  repetitions  of  words 
already  learned  ;  were  spent  in  the  perusal  of  the  best 
books,  children  would  never  feel  the  necessity  for  the 
trash  they  read,  whose  baneful  influence  is  immeasur- 
able. 

In  my  talk  upon  School  Government,  I  said,  that  the 
end  and  aim  of  school  education,  is  to  train  a  child  to 
work,  to  work  systematically,  to  love  work,  and  to  put 
his  brains  into  work.  The  clearest  expression  of 
thought,  is  expression  in  the  concrete.  Working  with 
the  hands,  is  one  great  means  of  primary  development- 
It  is  also  one  of  the  very  best  means  of  moral  training* 
From  the  first,  every  child  has  an  intense  desire  to  ex- 
press his  thought  in  some  other  way,  than  in  language. 
Froebel  discovered  this,  and  founded  the  Kindergarten. 
No  one  can  deny,  that  true  Kindergarten  training  is 
moral  training.  Ideas  and  thoughts  come  into  the 
mind,  demanding  expression.  The  use  of  that  which 
is  expressed,  to  the  child,  is  the  means  it  gives  him,  to 
compare  his  thought,  with  its  concrete  expression.  The 
expression  of  the  form  made,  compared  with  the  ideal, 


i8o  NOTES  OF  TALKS  ON   TEACHING. 

Stimulates  to  further  trials.     In  making  and  building,  is 
found  the  best  means  of  training  attention. 

I  wish  to  make  a  sharp  distinction  here,  between  real 
work,  and  drudgery.  Real  work  is  done  on  real  things, 
producing  tangible  results,  results  that  are  seen  and  felt. 
Real  work  is  adapted  at  every  step  to  the  child*s  power 
to  do.  Every  struggle  brings  success,  and  makes  better 
work  possible.  Drudgery,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  forced 
action  of  the  mind  upon  that  which  is  beyond  mental 
grasp,  upon  words  that  cannot  be  apprehended,  upon 
lessons  not  understood.  Drudgery,  consists,  mainly,  of 
the  monotonous  use  of  the  verbal  memory.  There  is  no 
variety  ;  not  a  bush  or  shrub  along  the  pathway.  This 
is  the  kind  of  study  that  produces  ill-health.  It  is  the 
straining  of  the  mind  upon  disliked  subjects,  with  the 
single  motive,  to  gain  applause,  rewards,  and  diplomas. 
Thousands  of  nervous,  earnest,  faithful  girls,  spurred  on 
by  unwise  parents,  yearly  lose  their  lives,  or  become 
hopeless  invalids,  in  this  costly  and  useless  struggle. 
Real  work  stimulates  every  activity  of  mind  and  body. 
It  furnishes  the  variety  so  necessary  to  interest,  and  is 
like  true  physical  development  that  exercises  every 
muscle  and  strengthens  the  whole  man.  Real  work  is 
always  interesting,  like  real  play.  No  matter  how 
earnest  the  striving  may  be,  it  is  followed  by  a  glow  of 
genuine  pleasurable  emotion. 

There  is  great  outcry  against  our  schools  and  colleges, 
caused  by  the  suspicion  that  they  educate  children  to  be 
above  manual  labor.  This  suspicion  is  founded  upon 
fact,  I  am  sorry  to  say  ;  but  the  statement  of  the  fact  is 
not  correct.     Children  are  educated  below  manual  labor. 


MORAL    TRAINING,  l8i 

The  vague,  meaningless  things  they  learn,  are  not 
adapted  to  real  work  ;  no  effectual  habits  of  labor  are 
formed  by  rote-learning.  The  student's  desire  is  too 
often,  when  he  leaves  school  or  college,  to  get  a  living  by 
means  of  empty  words.  The  world  has  little  or  no  use 
for  such  rubbish.  That  man  should  gain  his  bread  by 
the  sweat  of  his  brow,  is  a  curse  changed  to  the  highest 
possible  blessing.  The  clergyman,  the  lawyer,  the  phy- 
sician, the  teacher,  need  the  benefit  of  an  early  training 
in  manual  labor,  quite  as  much  as  the  man  who  is  to 
labor  with  his  hands  all  his  life.  Manual  labor  is  the 
foundation  of  clear  thinking,  sound  imagination,  and 
good  health.  There  should  be  no  real  difference  between 
the  methods  of  our  common  schools,  and  the  methods  of 
training  in  manual  labor  schools.  A  great  mistake  has 
been  made  in  separating  them.  All  school  work  should 
be  real  work.  We  learn  to  do  by  doing.  **  Satan  finds 
some  mischief  still,  for  idle  hands  to  do."  The  direct  in- 
fluence of  real  work  is,  to  absorb  the  attention  in  the 
things  to  be  done  ;  leaving  no  room  in  the  consciousness 
for  idleness,  and  its  consequent  vices.  Out  of  real  work, 
the  child  develops  a  motive,  that  directs  his  life  work. 
Doing  work  thoroughly,  has  a  great  moral  influence. 
One  piece  of  work  well  done,  one  subject  well  mastered, 
makes  the  mind  far  stronger  and  better,  than  a  smatter- 
ing of  all  the  branches  taught  in  our  schools.  School 
work,  and  manual  labor,  have  been  for  a  long  time 
divorced  ;  I  predict  that  the  time  is  fast  coming,  when 
they  will  be  joined  in  indissoluble  bonds.  The  time  too, 
is  coming,  when  ministers  will  urge  upon  their  hearers, 
the  great  importance  of  manual  labor,  as  a  means  of 


i82  NOTES  OF  TALK'S  ON  TEACHING. 

spiritual  growth.  At  no  distant  date,  industrial  rooms 
will  become  an  indispensable  part  of  every  good  school ; 
the  work  of  the  head,  and  skill  of  the  hand,  will  be  joined 
in  class-room,  and  workshop,  into  one  comprehensive 
method  of  developing  harmoniously  the  powers  of  body, 
mind,  and  soul.  If  you  would  develop  morality  in  the 
child,  train  him  to  work. 

In  all  that  I  have  said,  and  whatever  mistakes  I  have 
made,  either  in  thought  or  expression,  I  have  had  but 
one  motive  in  my  heart,  and  that  is,  that  the  dear 
children  of  our  common  country,  may  receive  at  our 
hands,  a  development  of  intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual 
power,  that  will  enable  them  to  fight  life's  battle,  to  be 
thoughtful  conscientious  citizens,  and  prepare  them  for 
all  that  may  come  thereafter.  Whatever  we  would  have 
our  pupils,  we  must  be  ourselves. 


SECOHD 
EDITION 


THE 

"MEW  METHODS" 

EXPLAINED. 


SIXTH 
THOUSAND 


THE 


QuiNCY  Methods 

ILLUSTRATED. 

By  LELIA  E.  PATRIDGE, 

Of  Coii.  Parker's  Cook  Co.  Nor.  School,  Normal  Park,  iLii, 


One  large  12  mo.   volume  of    686  pages,  superbly  bound  in 
blue  cloth,   gilt,  illustrated  with  a  number  of  en- 
gravings and  several  colored  plates 

PRICE,  ^i.^o. 

This  book  presents  the  actual  practice  in  the  School 
Room  of  the  theory  set  forth  in  "  Talks  on  Teaching," 
It  comprises  a  series  of  Typical  Lessons  covering  the 
first  four  years  of  school  life.  The  first  year's  work  is 
very  fully  described,  sections  I.  to  Y.,  inclusive,  being 
devoted  to  it.  Sections  VI.,  VII.,  VIII.,  take  up  the 
second,  third,  and  fourth  years  in  order.  A  careful 
reading  of  the  elaborate  table  of  contents  (which  will  be 
sent  free  on  request,)  will  give  an  excellent  idea  of  the 
book  

AGENTS  WANTED 

iJl    JL  In  every  County  in  the  United  States. 


E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO., 

EDUCATIONAL  PUBLISHEUS, 

25  Clinton  Place,  N.  Y. 


INTENSELY  PRACTICAL 

EDDCATIOML    JODRMLS. 


THE  SCHOOL  JOURNAL; 

Weekly,  50  number  s  a  year.  $2.50  per  year ;  $2,00  if  paid  in 
advance.  Amos  M.  Kellogg  and  Jerome  Allen,  editors. 
The  oldest  and  most  widely  circulated  educational  journal  in 
the  United  States,  It  contains  practical  articles  from  prom- 
inent educators  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Especially  does  it 
advocate  a  reform  in  educational  methods,  and  the  study  of 
educational  principles.  It  contains  every  week  live  and 
pointed  editorials,  timely  articles  on  education,  large  prac- 
tical (school-room)  department,  declamations  and  dialogues, 
fresh  educational  notes,  letters  and  the  editors'  comments  on 
them,  ''things  to  tell  the  scholars,"  well-edited  book  depart- 
ment, etc.  Altogether  it  is  the  best  and  cheapest  educational 
journal  published.    Sample  copy  free, 

THE  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE; 

Monthly,  $1,00  a  year.  Amos  M,  Kellogg  and  Jerome 
Allen,  editors.  This  is  the  most  popular  and  successful 
educational  journal  in  the  world.  It  has  30,000  subscribers. 
It  aims  to  present  to  the  teacher  the  thing  he  actually  needs, 
and  is  intensely;  practical.  It  is  really  astonishing  how  much 
practical  material  is  packed  into  the  sixteen  to  twenty-four 
large,  solid  pages  each  month.  From  thirty-five  to  fifty  articles 
that  can  be  used  by  the  average  teacher  appear  in  each  num- 
ber.   Sample  copy  free. 

TREASURE-TROVE ; 

A  beautiful  Illustrated  Monthly,  containing  twenty  pages, 
only  50  cents  a  year.  It  delights  the  family ;  it  educates  the 
boys  and  the  girls ;  it  is  full  of  the  purest,  sweetest,  and  most 
interesting  reading.    It  interests  and  educates.    The  boys  and 

f:irls  who  read  it  will  become  well-informed  men  and  women, 
n  its  eight  year ;  widelj^  circulated,  It  has  stories,  poems,  and 
dialogues.  The  * 'Question-Box"  gives  prizes  for  best  answers. 
The  "Letter-Box'*  has  bright  letters  from  the  brightest  boys 
and  girls.   Agents  wanted  everywhere, 

E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO., 

EDUCATIONAL  PUBLISHERS, 

25  Clinton  Place,  N.  Y. 


LECTURES 

ON  THE 

Science  and  Art  of  Education. 

By  JOSEPH  PAYNE, 

The  First  Professor  of  the  Science  and  A  rt  of  Education  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Preceptors^  Londoh.\  England. 

One  volume,  with  Portrait,  i6mo,    264  pages,  English  cloth 

with  gold  side  and  back  stamp.     Price,  postpaid,  75 

cents.     Paper  cover,  40  cents. 

^  CONTENTS— Preface ;  A  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Joseph  Payne  ;  The 
Science  and  Art  of  Education  ;  The  Theory  or  Science  of  Education;  The 
Practice  or  Art  of  Educationj  Educational  Methods  ;  Principles  of  the 
Science  of  Education  ;  Theories  of  Teaching  with  their  Corresponding 
Practice  j  The  Importance  of  the  Training  of  the  Teacher ;  The  True 
Foundation  of  Science  Teaching;  Pestalozzi :  the  Influence  of  his  Prin- 
ciples and  Practice  on  Elementary  Education  ;  Froebel  and  the  Kinder- 
garten System  of  Elementary  Education. 

A  Word  of  Comtnendation  from  Col.  I*arker, 

Normal  Park,  III.,  April  9,  1884. 
"  I  use  Payne's  Lectures  in  my  professional  training  class  as  a  text- 
book, and  consider  it  one  of  the  invaluable  books  for  teachers.'''' 

Francis  W.  Parker. 

Adopted  by  the  Illinois  an.d  Minnesota  Reading  Circles. 

LECTURES  ON  TEACHING 

By  J.  G.  FITCH,  M.A., 

One  of  Her  Majesty^ s  Inspectors  of  Schools^  England. 

With  Preface  by  an  American  Normal  Teacher.     One  volume, 
cloth,  395  pages.     Price,  $1.00. 

EXTRACT  FJROM  AMBMICAN  JPMJSFACJE, 

Teachers  everywhere  among  the  English-speaking  people  have  hailed 
Mr.  Fitch's  work  as  an  invaluable  aid  for  almost  every  kind  of  instruction 
and  school  organization.  It  combines  the  theoretical  and  the  practical ; 
it  is  based  on  psychology ;  it  gives  admirable  advice  on  everything  con- 
nected with  teaching,  from  the  furnishing  of  a  school-room  to  the  prepar- 
ation of  questions  for  examination.  Its  style  is  singularly  clear,  vigorous, 
and  harmonious. 

E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO.,  Educational  Publishers, 

JVb.  25  Clinton  Place,  New  TorJe, 


A  BOOK  OF  EDUCATIVE  OCCUPATIONS  FOR  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOL. 

EDUCATION  BY  DOING. 

By  Anna  Johnson,  teacher  in  the  Children's  Aid  Schools  of 
New  York  City.  With  a  Prefatory  Note  by  Edward 
R.  Shaw,  of  the  High  School  at  Yonkers,  N.  Y.  i6mo, 
112  pages.  Handsome  red  cloth,  gilt  stamp.  Price,  60 
cents. 

EXTRA  CT  Fit  OM  BBEFATOH  Y  NOTE. 

"In  observing  the  results  achieved  by  the  Kindergarten,  educators 
have  felt  that  Frcebers  great  discovery  of  education  by  occupations  must 
have  something  for  the  public  schools — that  a  further  application  of  *  the 
putting  of  experience  and  action  in  the  place  of  books  and  abstract  think- 
ing,' could  be  made  beyond  the  fifth  or  sixth  year  of  the  child's  life.  This 
book  is  an  outgrowth  of  this  idea,  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  the  '  New 
Education.'' 

'•  It  will  be  widely  welcomed,  we  believe,  as  it  gives  concrete  methods 
of  work— the  very  aids  primary  teachers  are  in  search  of.  There  has  been 
a  wide_  discussion  of  the  subject  of  education,  and  there  exists  no  little 
confusion  in  the  mind  of  many  a  teacher  as  to  how  he  should  improve 
upon  methods  that  have  been  condemned.  There  is  a  general  desire  and 
demand  for  better  methods.  The  principles  enunciated  by  Spencer  '  that 
science  is  evolved  out  of  its  corresponding  art,"  and  '  that  the  abstract  is 
to  be  reached  byway  of  the  concrete/  are  as  true  in  their  applications  with 
reference  to  teachers  as  to  pupils.  ^  And  therefore,  whoever  gives  concrete 
methods,  based  upon  right  principals,  is  doing  the  most  to  aid  the  great 
body  of  teachers,  and  is  laying  the  surest  foundation  for  a  recognition  of 
the  principles  of  science  of  education." 

THE   NEW    EDUCATION. 

School   Management. 

A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE  FOR 

THE  TEACHER  IN  THE  SCHOOL-ROOM. 

By  AMOS  M.  KELLOGG,  A.M. 

Fourth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.      Tastefully  bound  in 

cloth,  with  side  and  back  stamp  in  gold.     Price, 

75  cents,  postpaid. 

This  work  takes  up  the  most  difficult  of  all  school  work,  viz. :  the 
government  of  a  school,  and  is  filled  with  original  and  practical  ideas  on 
the  subject.  It  is  invaluable  to  the  teacher  who  desires  to  improve  his 
school. 

E,  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO,,  Educational  Publishers, 

No,  25  Clinton  Place,  New  York, 


-IFOE- 


Receptions, 

Friday  Afternoons, 

Commencements, 
Declamation  Exercises, 

Recitation  Hour,    etc. 

RECEPTION    DAY. 

(FOUR  NUMBERS.) 
Takes  the  lead  as  the  best  publications  of  their  kind  for  schools. 


Wrh  "I  Co^t^i^s  in  its  160  pages  24  easy  dialogues  that  require 
^  ^*  "*■  little  or  no  special  dresses  or  stage  fixtures ;  11  declama- 
tions for  boys ;  25  recitations  for  girls  or  boys ;  40  short  selections 
for  the  primary  class  to  memorize,  and  several  songs,  valedic- 
tories, opening  and  closing  addresses,  etc.  In -all  about  120  choice 
original,  and  selected  pieces, 

^^  Q  Contains  in  Its  160  pages  14  easy  dialogues,  15  recita- 
^^*  ^  tions,  10  declamations,  fine  class  exercises  for  the 
birthdays  of  Washington,  Whittier,  and  Garfield ;  18  short  pieces 
for  the  primary  class  to  memorize,  and  a  valedictory. 
^  Q  Contains  160  pages,  filled  with  21  dialogues,  all  adapted 
JMO*  «j  ^Q  ^jjg  school  stage;  18  recitations ;  18  declamations ; 
27  pieces  for  primary  class  to  memorize;  and  several  miscel- 
laneous pieces. 

«^  M  Contains  160  pages,  with  13  easy  dialogues  for  boys 
^^*  ^  and  girls;  22  declamations  for  boys;  18  for  girls;  21 
short  selections  for  primary  scholars,  and  several  miscellaneous 
pieces, 

JPrifited  on  laid  paper,  with   handsome    illuminated 
cover,  MEjyXTCEl)  price,  25  cents  each, 

E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  CO., 

EDUCATIONAL  PUBLISHERS, 

25  Clinton,  Place,  N.  Y. 


AaENTB  WANTED. 


We  want  the  addresses  of 
live,  enthusiastic  teachers  who 
desire  to  benefit  their  fellows 
and  themselves  by  selling  our 
educational  papers  and  books. 
They  are  so  justly  popular 
among  teachers  that  agents 
who  have  energy  and  real  en- 
thusiasm in  the  cause,  even  if 
they  distrust  their  own  can- 
vassing ability,  are  bound  to 
succeed.  Address  for  particu- 
lars 

E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co., 

EDUCATIONAL  PUBLISHERS, 

25  Clinton  Place,  K  Y. 


ONE  MONTH  USE 

PLEASE  RETURN  TO  DESK 
FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

1 -month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling  642-4209 

Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior 

to  due  date. 

I  ALL  BOOKS  ARE  SUBJECT  TO  RECALL  7  DAYS 

AFTER  DATE  CHECKED  OUT. 


/  ^/y  '7^ 


FEB  14  1977 


< 
O 


-^ 


LU 


-J        to 

>-       en 


-01 


CO 


ffl 


o 


U. 


UJ 


CD 


JAN  9  A  REC'D   -•?  PUm 


JUNB,   1978 


;  "^ 


80 


WW 


-7T-fr 


0  41997 


RECCIRC.   APR  22 II 


LD  2BC-30m-5,'75 
(S5877L) 


Z 

D 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


LD  21-100W-12, '43  (8796s) 


